Zhang Xueliang

Zhang Xueliang (; June 3, 1901 – October 15, 2001), also known by the epithet "Young Marshal" in contrast to his father "Old Marshal" Zhang Zuolin, was a Chinese general. He is best known for his role in the Xi'an Incident in 1936, in which he arrested Chiang Kai-shek and forced him to form a Second United Front with the Chinese Communist Party against the Japanese.

In 1928, following the Japanese assassination of his father, Zhang assumed command of the Northeastern Army and leadership of the Fengtian clique. A progressive sympathetic to nationalist ideas, he pledged loyalty to the Nationalist government in the Northeast Flag Replacement, bringing an end to the Warlord Era. He used his military base to wield considerable influence in the politics of the Nanjing decade. He followed a policy of nonresistance to the Japanese invasions of Manchuria in 1931 and Rehe in 1933, the latter of which prompted Wang Jingwei's call for his resignation and provoked public outrage. He stepped down after the loss of Rehe.

In 1934, Zhang was again appointed as commander of the Northeastern Army to suppress the Communists, but he became disillusioned with Chiang's policy of "stabilizing China before resisting Japan," and orchestrated the Xi'an Incident with Yang Hucheng. In its aftermath, Chiang placed Zhang under house arrest, first on the mainland and then in Taiwan, for more than five decades until 1988, refraining from executing him due to the intervention of Madam Chiang. Zhang died of pneumonia in 2001, at the age of 100 in Honolulu, Hawaii.

Early life

Zhang Xueliang was born in Haicheng, Liaoning province on June 3, 1901. Zhang was educated by private tutors and, unlike his father, the warlord Zhang Zuolin, he felt at ease in the company of westerners.

Zhang graduated from Fengtian Military Academy, was made a colonel in the Fengtian Army, and appointed the commander of his father's bodyguards in 1919. In 1921 he was sent to Japan to observe military maneuvers, where he developed a special interest in aircraft. Later, he developed an air corps for the Fengtian Army, which was widely used in the battles that took place within the Great Wall during the 1920s. In 1922, he was promoted to major general and commanded an army-sized force. Two years later, he was also made commander of the air units.

Leader of the Northeast

Change of Flag

thumb|Zhang with [[Chiang Kai-shek in November 1930]]

Upon the death of his father in 1928, he succeeded him as the leader of the Northeast Peace Preservation Forces (popularly "Northeastern Army"), which controlled China's northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Fengtian, and Jilin. In December of the same year he proclaimed his allegiance to the Kuomintang (KMT; Chinese Nationalist Party).

Zhang sought to emphasize modernization in cities like Shenyang, establishing educational institutions and institutions to increase commerce.

Purge of Yang and Chang

Yang Yuting, a veteran general of the Fengtian clique, and Governor of Heilongjiang Province Chang Yinhuai, were dissatisfied with Zhang Xueliang inheriting the military and political power of the Three Northeastern Provinces. They believed that the young warlord indulged in drinking, women, and opium, lacking real talent and learning. His military achievements before the age of 24 were in fact the work of his deputy, Guo Songling. After the assassination of Zhang Zuolin, although Zhang Xueliang knew the Japanese were behind it, the 27-year-old Young Marshal was powerless to respond. Instead, he leaned toward cooperating with his former enemies and suppressed veteran contributors to the Fengtian clique.

Yang Yuting, considering himself a senior statesman, often spoke bluntly to Zhang and arrogantly flaunted his seniority, frequently ridiculing him—acts seen by many generals as disrespectful. Yang also pressured Zhang Xueliang into establishing the "Northeast Railway Supervisory Office" and appointed Chang Yinhuai to lead it.

On January 10, 1929, Zhang invited several generals including, Yang Yuting and Chang Yinhuai to his home ostensibly for a game of mahjong and had them arrested to face trial that night and then executed. After their execution, Zhang publicly listed their crimes, but simultaneously gave each of their families a condolence payment of 10,000 silver dollars, reflecting the factional struggles within the Fengtian clique. These executions allowed Zhang to replace leaders from his father's administration with those whom Zhang deemed more loyal.

1930s

thumb|Autograph of Zhang Xueliang ()|267x267px

Mukden Incident

A year later, in the September 18 Mukden Incident, Japanese troops attacked Zhang's forces in Shenyang in order to provoke a full-on war with China, which Chiang did not want to face until his forces were stronger. In accordance with this strategy, Zhang's armies withdrew from the front lines without significant engagements, leading to the effective Japanese occupation of Zhang's former northeastern domain. There has been speculation that Chiang Kai-Shek wrote a letter to Zhang asking him to pull his forces back, but Zhang later stated that he himself issued the orders. Apparently, Zhang was aware of how weak his forces were compared to the Japanese and wished to preserve his position by retaining a sizeable army. Nonetheless, this would still be in line with Chiang's overall strategic standings. At the time of the Mukden Incident, it was Zhang Xueliang himself who issued the "non-resistance order". Chiang Kai-shek, in fact, did not receive news of the "incident" until the evening of September 19, after he had arrived in Nanchang, learning of it around 9–10 PM via Shanghai sources. Zhang himself later admitted, "It was our Northeast Army that chose not to resist."

Further Retreat

After retreating from Manchuria, Zhang and the Northeastern Army took up defensive positions along the Great Wall in Rehe. During this time, Zhang sponsored China's first participation in the Olympic Games.

The Japanese attacked Zhang again in 1933, and after a weak resistance, Zhang was denied reinforcements from the central government and had to retreat further south. He resigned his posts, underwent treatment for his opium addiction, and left for a year-long exile in Europe. When Zhang returned in January 1934, he sought to regain his position in charge of the Northeastern Army. However, this was strongly opposed by both the Japanese and some Nationalist leaders critical of his failure to stop the Japanese advance. Chiang therefore reassigned him to an anti-Communist force in Wuhan, alienating Zhang and the other leaders of the Northeastern Army. Over the next year, Zhang became a more outspoken critic of Chiang's policy of appeasement towards Japan. He continued to pressure Chiang to reappoint him as head of the Northeastern Army, with the hope that he could use the force to fight the Japanese. On October 2, 1935, Chiang granted Zhang's request, but only because he needed the Northeastern Army's support to crush the final Communist base at Yan'an.

War with Communists

On January 6, 1934, Zhang Xueliang returned to China aboard the Conte Verde from Italy, disembarking in Hong Kong to visit Hu Hanmin en route. On June 18, Zhang toured the Henan–Hubei border area, arriving in Huangchuan that day. On June 21, he convened a military meeting there to discuss anti-Communist operations, then proceeded to Shangcheng, and to Lihuang and Lu'an in western Anhui. On June 27, he returned to Wuhan.

On April 2, the Nationalist Government promoted Yan Xishan, Feng Yuxiang, Zhang Xueliang, He Yingqin, Li Zongren, Zhu Peide, Tang Shengzhi, and Chen Jitang to the rank of First-Class General in the National Army.

Later life and death

thumb|Zhang's gravesite in [[Valley of the Temples Memorial Park]]

In 1991, Zhang made his first trip abroad after being released from house arrest, visiting San Francisco to see friends and family who had moved there. Zhang emigrated to Honolulu, Hawaii in 1995. There he lived with his younger brother Chang Hsueh-sen, who was working as a hotelier. He remained there until his death in 2001.

Although never personally a communist, Zhang is regarded by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the People's Republic of China as a patriotic hero for his role in ending the encirclement campaigns and beginning the Second Sino-Japanese War. There were numerous pleas for him to visit mainland China, but Zhang declined, citing his political closeness to the KMT and his frail health. Despite his lack of return, he was named honorary President of Northeastern University in Shenyang in 1993, where he had previously served as president between 1928 and 1936. Zhang was also named honorary chairman of Harbin Institute of Technology in 1993.

Awards

:
80px Order of Rank and Merit, Fifth Class (1920)
:
80px Order of Blue Sky and White Sun with Grand Cordon
80px Order of Wen-Hu, Second Class (1921)

;Children

Pauline Tao, born Chang Lu-ying (張閭瑛 Zhang Lüying) (c. 1916–), eldest daughter born to Yu, resides in the U.S.
Martin Chang Lu-hsun (張閭珣 Zhang Lüxun) (c. 1918–1986), eldest son born to Yu, died in Taipei
Raymond Chang Lu-yu (張閭玗 Zhang Lüyu) (c. 1919–1981), second son born to Yu, died in Los Angeles, CA
Chang Lu-chi (張閭琪 Zhang Lüqi) (c. 1920–1929), third son born to Yu
Robert Chang Lu-lin (張閭琳 Zhang Lülin) (1930–), illegitimate son born to Chao, resides in the U.S.

;Siblings

Zhang Xueming (1908–1983), defected to the Communists, died in Beijing
Hsueh Tseng Chang (張學曾 Zhang Xuezeng) (1911–2004), died in Novato, CA
Zhang Xuesi (張學思 Chang Hsueh-ssu) (1916–1970), defected to the Communists, died in China
Henry Chang Hsueh-sen (張學森 Zhang Xuesen) (1920–1995), died in Beijing while visiting
Zhang Xuejun (張學浚 Chang Hsueh-chun) (1922–1984), died in Taiwan
Zhang Xueying (張學英 Chang Hsueh-ying) (1924–?)
Zhang Xuequan (張學銓 Chang Hsueh-chuan) (1925–1992 or 1996), died in Tianjin

In popular culture

Zhang was portrayed by Andy Lau in a cameo appearance in the 1994 martial arts film Drunken Master II.
Zhang was centrally featured in the 1981 Chinese film The Xi'an Incident, directed by Cheng Yin. The film won three awards at the 2nd annual Golden Rooster Awards.
A 2007 TV series on the Xi'an Incident was produced and aired in mainland China, with Zhang Xueliang being portrayed by Hu Jun.
The Peter H. L. Chang reading room at Columbia University's Butler Library is named after Zhang. The library hosts a collection of Zhang's papers.
Beijing microbrewery Great Leap Brewing named its Little General IPA after Zhang.
A Chinese TV series titled Young Marshal is based on Zhang's life.