Xiang Yu (), born Xiang Ji, was a Chinese warlord who founded and led the short-lived kingdom-state of Western Chu during the interregnum period between the Qin and Han dynasties known as the Chu–Han Contention (206–202 BC).
A nobleman of the former state of Chu, Xiang Yu rebelled against the Qin dynasty under the command of his uncle Xiang Liang, and was granted the title of "Duke of Lu" () by King Huai II of the restoring Chu state in 208 BC. The following year, he led an outnumbered Chu army to victory at the Battle of Julu against the Qin armies led by Zhang Han. After the fall of Qin, Xiang Yu divided the country into a federacy of Eighteen Kingdoms, among which he was self-titled as the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" () and ruled a vast region spanning central and eastern China, with Pengcheng as his capital.
Although a formidable warrior and tactician, Xiang Yu was poor in both diplomacy and strategy, especially after dismissing his own adviser Fan Zeng. He was later outcompeted by his main rival Liu Bang during the massive civil war among the rebel kingdoms, which concluded with his eventual defeat and suicide in a last stand at the Battle of Gaixia. The demise of Xiang Yu allowed Liu Bang to subsequently become the founding emperor of the newly established Han dynasty, which is widely regarded as a golden age in Chinese history.
Names and titles
Xiang Yu's clan name was Xiang () and his family name was Ji (姬), while his given name was Ji (), and his courtesy name was Yu (). He is best known as Xiang Yu (). Xiang Yu is referred to as the "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" () or simply "Hegemon-King" (; also translated as "Conqueror-King").
Family background
There are two accounts of Xiang Yu's family background. The first claimed that Xiang Yu was from the House of Mi (), the royal family of the Chu state. His ancestors were granted Xiang County (; around present-day Shenqiu County, Henan) as their fief by the king of Chu and had since adopted Xiang as their family name. The other account claimed that Xiang Yu was a descendant of a noble clan from the Lu state and his family had served in the Chu army for generations. Xiang Yu's grandfather, , was a general who was killed in action while leading Chu forces to resist an invasion by the Qin state in 223 BC.
Xiang Yu was born in 232 BC during the late Warring States period when the Qin state started conquering the other six major states. According to the descendants of the Xiang family living in Suqian, Jiangsu, Xiang Yu's father was Xiang Chao (), Xiang Yan's eldest son. Xiang Yu was raised by his uncle, Xiang Liang, because his father died early. In 221 BC, when Xiang Yu was about 11 years old, the Qin state unified China and established the Qin dynasty.
Xiang Yu had a double pupil in one eye just like the mythical Emperor Shun and Duke Wen of Jin. He was thus seen as an extraordinary person because his unique double pupil was a mark of a king or sage in Chinese tradition. Xiang Yu was slightly taller than eight chi, or approximately , and possessed great physical strength as he could lift a ding.
When Xiang Yu grew older, Xiang Liang killed someone so they fled to the Wu region to evade the authorities. Around the time, Qin Shi Huang was on an inspection tour in that area. As Xiang Yu and his uncle watched the emperor's procession pass by, Xiang Yu said, "I can replace him."
Evaluation
Classical
The historian Sima Qian, who wrote Xiang Yu's biography in the Shi Ji, described him as someone who boasted about his achievements and thought highly of himself. Xiang Yu preferred to depend on his personal abilities as opposed to learning with humility from others. In Sima Qian's view, Xiang Yu had not only failed to recognise his own shortcomings, but also failed to make attempts to correct his mistakes. Sima Qian felt that it was ridiculous for Xiang Yu to attribute his downfall to Heaven's will instead of his personal failures. Other instances included the gruesome methods of execution he employed against his enemies and critics. In contrast, Liu Bang was a shrewd and cunning ruler who was sometimes ruthless too, but had made the wiser choice in forbidding his troops from looting the cities they had captured and sparing the lives of the citizens, earning their support and trust in return. Xiang Yu became an example for Confucianists to advocate the idea that leaders should rule with benevolence and not govern by instilling fear in the people. Xiang Yu's ambitions ended with the collapse of Western Chu, his defeat by Liu Bang, and his death at an early age.
Han Xin once described Xiang Yu as follows: "A man who turns into a fierce warrior when he encounters a rival stronger than he is, but also one who is sympathetic and soft-hearted when he sees someone weaker than he is. He was neither able to make good use of capable generals nor able to support Emperor Yi of Chu; he showed no mercy at all in battle. Even though he was a Hegemon-King in name, he had already lost the people's hearts."
The Tang dynasty poet Du Mu mentioned Xiang Yu in a poem: "Victory or defeat is common in battle. One who can endure humiliation is a true man. There are several talents in Jiangdong. Who knows if he (Xiang Yu) can made a comeback?" The Song dynasty poet Wang Anshi had a different opinion wrote: "The warrior is already tired after so many battles. His defeat in the Central Plains is hard to reverse. Although there are talents in Jiangdong, are they willing to help him?" The Song dynasty poet Li Qingzhao wrote: "A hero in life; a king of ghosts after death. Until now, we still remember Xiang Yu, who refused to return to Jiangdong."
Xiang Yu is popularly viewed as a leader who possessed great courage but lacked wisdom, and his character is aptly summarised using the Chinese idiom , meaning "has courage but lacks tactics", or "foolhardy". Another Chinese idiom , was also derived from the Battle of Gaixia, and used to describe someone in a desperate situation without help. Another saying by Liu Bang, "Having a Fan Zeng but unable to use him" (), was also used to describe Xiang Yu's reliance on Fan Zeng and failure to actually listen to Fan Zeng's advice.
Modern era
Modern historians have drawn similarities between Xiang Yu's military brilliance and that of his Mediterranean contemporary Hannibal.
Mao Zedong also once mentioned Xiang Yu: "We should use our remaining strength to defeat the enemy, instead of thinking about achieving fame like the Hegemon-King." In 1964, Mao also pointed out three reasons for Xiang Yu's downfall: not following Fan Zeng's advice to kill Liu Bang during the Feast at Swan Goose Gate and letting Liu Bang escape; adhering firmly to the terms of the Treaty of Hong Canal without considering that Liu Bang might betray his trust; building his capital at Pengcheng.
In popular culture
thumb|right|200px|The celebrated [[Peking opera|Peking Opera episode Farewell My Concubine portrays Xiang Yu during his final days at Gaixia]]
Song of Gaixia
The "Song of Gaixia" () was composed by Xiang Yu during the Battle of Gaixia.
Xiang Yu's prowess in battle has been glorified in Chinese folk tales, poetry, and novels, and he has been the subject of films, television, plays, operas, video games and comics. His classic image is that of a heroic and brave, but arrogant and bloodthirsty warrior-king. His romance with his wife Consort Yu and his suicide have also added a touch of a tragic hero to his character.
Poetry, folk tales, novels
Xiang Yu's prowess in battle is mentioned in Chinese folk tales and poetry, particularly during the Battle of Gaixia. The Meng Qiu (), an eighth-century primer by the scholar Li Han, contains the four-character rhyming couplet "Ji Xin impersonates the Emperor". It referred to the incident during the Battle of Xingyang in 205 BC when Ji Xin and 2,000 women disguised themselves as Liu Bang and his troops to distract Xiang Yu and buy time for Liu Bang to escape.
In the 14th-century classical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, the warlord Sun Ce is nicknamed "Little Conqueror / Little Hegemon-King" () and compared favourably to Xiang Yu by a contemporary Sun Ce is best known for his conquests in the Jiangdong region that laid the foundation of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period.
In another 14th-century classical novel Water Margin, Zhou Tong, one of the 108 Stars of Destiny, is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" for having an appearance similar to Xiang Yu's.
In the 16th-century novel Jin Ping Mei, Xiang Yu is mentioned as an example of a tragic character in the song at the opening of the first chapter.
The character Mata Zyndu in Ken Liu's epic fantasy novel The Grace of Kings is based on Xiang Yu.
Operas
The Beijing opera The Hegemon-King Bids His Lady Farewell depicts the events of Xiang Yu's defeat at the Battle of Gaixia. The title of the play was borrowed as the Chinese title for Chen Kaige's 1993 award-winning film Farewell My Concubine.
Film and television
Notable actors who have portrayed Xiang Yu in films and television series include: Shek Sau in The Battlefield (1985); Ray Lui in The Great Conqueror's Concubine (1994); Hu Jun in The Story of Han Dynasty (2003); Kwong Wah in The Conqueror's Story (2004); Tan Kai in The Myth (2010); Feng Shaofeng in White Vengeance (2011); Peter Ho in King's War (2012); Ming Dao in Beauties of the Emperor (2012); Daniel Wu in The Last Supper (2012); and Qin Junjie in The Legend of Qin (2015).