right|thumb|upright=1.2|Jupiter and Mercurius in the House of Philemon and Baucis (1630–33) by the workshop of [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens: Zeus and Hermes, testing a village's practice of hospitality, were received only by Baucis and Philemon, who were rewarded while their neighbors were punished.]]Xenia ( ) is an ancient Greek concept of hospitality. It is almost always translated as 'guest-friendship' or 'ritualized friendship'. It is an institutionalized relationship rooted in generosity, gift exchange, and reciprocity. Historically, hospitality towards foreigners and guests was understood as a moral obligation, as well as a political imperative. Hospitality towards foreigners honored Zeus Xenios (and Athene Xenia), patrons of foreigners.

The rituals of hospitality created and expressed a reciprocal relationship between guest and host expressed in both material benefits (e.g. gifts, protection, shelter) as well as non-material ones (e.g. favors, certain normative rights).

thumb|234x234px|A renaissance painting displaying traditional exchanges of gifts between gods. This represents the material and social exchanges involved with Xenia.

Xenia was considered to be particularly important due to the belief that gods mingled among the people; if one had poorly played host to a stranger, there was the risk of incurring the wrath of a god disguised as the stranger. Notable among them is the Greek god Zeus, who is sometimes called Zeus Xenios in his role as a protector of strangers. This normalized theoxeny or theoxenia, wherein human beings demonstrate their virtue by extending hospitality to a humble stranger (xenos), who turns out to be a disguised deity (theos). While these practices of guest-friendship are centered on the gods, they would become common among the Greeks in incorporating xenia into their customs and manners. Indeed, xenia would become a standard practice throughout all of Greece as a custom in the affairs of humans interacting with humans as well as humans interacting with the gods, which was culturally reinforced through understandings of gods interacting with gods as well.

In politics

Platonic philosophy

thumb|The School of Athens 1509-1511 by Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino depicts Plato discussing philosophy.

Plato describes four types of xenoi or strangers in need of hosting, in his work Laws:

  1. "The first and inevitable immigrant is the one who chooses summer, as a rule, for his annual visits, in the fashion of migratory birds— and, like birds, the most of these cross the sea, just as if they had wings, for the sake of making gain by their trading, and fly over to foreign cities during the summer season; this stranger must be received, when he comes to the city, at the markets, harbors, and public buildings outside the city, by the officials in charge thereof; and they shall have a care lest any such strangers introduce any innovation, and they shall duly dispense justice to them, and shall hold such intercourse as is necessary with them, but to the least extent possible."
  2. "The second type of stranger is he who is an inspector, in the literal sense, with his eyes, and with his ears also of all that appertains to musical exhibitions: for all such there must be lodgings provided at the temples, to afford them friendly accommodation, and the priests and temple-keepers must show them care and attention, until they have sojourned for a reasonable length of time and have seen and heard all that they intended; after which, if no harm has been done or suffered by them, they shall be dismissed. And for these the priests shall act as judges, in case anyone injures one of them or one of them injures anyone else, if the claim does not exceed fifty drachmae; but if any greater claim is made, the trial for such strangers must take place before the market-stewards."

Historical role in diplomacy

thumb|Relief of King Xerxes I of Persia, who engaged in xenia with Pythios the Lydian.

Historian Gabriel Herman lays out the use of xenia in political alliances in the Near East. He analyzes the exchange of xenia between King Xerxes and Pythios the Lydian, wherein Xerxes is made into Pythios's xenos. This exchange allowed for more peaceful political relations between both figures, and established a tone of generosity and brotherhood between the two.

Herman connects the phenomena of xenia to several historical cultural exchange customs throughout Afro-Eurasia. He connects xenia to studies of African tribal societies studied by Harry Tegnaeus, and certain traditional notions of African tribal brotherhood. Separately, he connects xenia as the predecessor to vassal and lord dynamics in later medieval times. In the classical work De Architectura, the Roman architect Vitruvius comments on how xenia was expressed in ancient Greek home layout and decoration. In particular, he emphasizes the decorative paintings of food in guest apartments of Greek homes:<blockquote>"...When the Greeks became more luxurious, and their circumstances more opulent, they began to provide dining rooms, chambers, and storerooms of provisions for their guests from abroad, and on the first day they would invite them to dinner, sending them on the next chickens, eggs, vegetables, fruits, and other country produce. This is why artists called pictures representing the things which were sent to guests ‘xenia.’" He explained how Vitruvius' understanding of xenia extended beyond the home, and involved general welcoming exchanges between strangers. In particular, Architectural historian, Lisa Landrum has also revealed the presence of Xenia in Greek theatre onstage and offstage.

In Greek literature

As a part of how Xenia was culturally reinforced, demonstrations of theoxenia and xenia were present through major works of Greek literature.

thumb|232x232px|The Abduction of Helen 1628-1629 is an oil painting by Guido Reni: it depicts the forceful seizure of Helen of Troy by the hero Paris. The kidnapping of Helen, who was already married, was a violation of the domain of Zeus Xenios that prompted the start of the Trojan War.

In the Iliad

  • The Trojan War described in the Iliad of Homer resulted from a violation of xenia. Paris, from the house of Priam of Troy, was a guest of Menelaus, king of Mycenaean Sparta, but seriously transgressed the bounds of xenia by abducting his host's wife, Helen. Therefore, the Achaeans were required by duty to Zeus to avenge this transgression, which, as a violation of xenia, was an insult to Zeus' authority.
  • Diomedes and Glaucus meet in no man's land. However, Diomedes does not want to fight another man descended from the Gods, so he asks Glaucus about his lineage. Glaucus reveals he is the grandson of the hero Bellerophon, who was once hosted by Diomedes's grandfather Oeuneus. Upon revealing this information, Diomedes realizes that their fathers had practiced xenia with each other, and they are guest-friends. Therefore, they decide not to fight, but to continue their hereditary guest-friendship by trading armor.
  • Hector speaks to Ajax about exchanging presents so that people will remember them for dropping their hatred and becoming friends. While this is not a traditional example of xenia, it does demonstrate the power of friendship in the Greek culture.
  • Book 9: Achilles invites Odysseus into his tent and asks Patroclus to make the strongest wine for them to drink. Patroclus also brings meat with the wine. The men eat and have light chatter before Odysseus delivers Agamemnon's offer to Achilles.
  • Calypso, a fair goddess, had wanted to keep Odysseus in her cavern as her husband, but he refused. Circe had also failed to keep Odysseus in her halls as her mate. Although both of these women had fine homes and fine things to offer him, their hospitality was too much for Odysseus. He instead left each with the goal of returning to Ithaca and reclaiming his family and his home. Sometimes hospitality was unwanted or was given unwillingly.
  • Telemachus shows xenia in Book One to the disguised Athena by graciously welcoming her into his own home and offering her food. He even moves her chair away from the suitors who are rude.
  • Eumaeus the swineherd shows xenia to the disguised Odysseus, claiming guests come under the protection of Zeus. When one of the suitors, Ctesippus, mocks the disguised Odysseus and hurls an ox's hoof at him as a "gift", mocking xenia, though Odysseus dodges this, Telemachus says if he had hit the guest, he would have run Ctesippus through with his spear. The other suitors are worried, saying Ctesippus is "doomed" if the stranger is a disguised god. As well as this, whenever Homer describes the details of "xenia", he uses the same formula every time: for example, the maid pouring wine into the gold cups, etc.
  • The suitors also display bad xenia. They continue to eat Penelope and Telemachus out of house and home, as well as being rude not only to each other but to Telemachus and the guests, such as disguised Athena and Odysseus.
  • Another excellent example of bad xenia is the cyclops Polyphemus. The cyclops breaks custom by asking Odysseus where he is from and what his name is the moment he meets him (it is proper for a host to first feed their guest before asking them questions). Then, not only does the cyclops not offer Odysseus's crew any food, he eats them and then refuses to let them leave.

In the Argonautica

thumb|261x261px|Jason displaying the golden fleece, which he found with the aid of Meidea.

The Argonautica, written by Apollonius of Rhodes, takes place before the Iliad and the Odyssey. Since the story takes place during Greek times, the theme of xenia is shown throughout the narrative.

  • When the Argonauts are warmly received by King Kyzicus of the Doliones who provides safe harbor and sacrificial materials to help the Argonauts consecrate a new altar to Apollo.In the opposite harbor xenia is violated by the monstrous earth-born who attack the Argonauts.
  • Xenos (Greek) &ndash; stranger, foreigner, alien

References

Bibliography

  • Some of this material comes from lectures by Dr. Elizabeth Vandiver, recorded and distributed by The Teaching Company.

Further reading

  • Belfiore, E. (1993). "Xenia in Sophocles’ Philoctetes." The Classical Journal, 89(2), 113–129. .
  • Felton, D. (2018). "Homer, The Odyssey, Odysseus and his Men Encounter the Cyclops" In A. S. Mittman & M. Hensel (Eds.), Primary Sources on Monsters: Demonstrare, Volume Two (pp. 33–41). Arc Humanities Press. .
  • Giesecke, A. L. (2003). "Homer’s Eutopolis: Epic Journeys and the Search for an Ideal Society." Utopian Studies, 14(2), 23–40. .
  • Kaul, F. (2017). "The Xenia Concept of Guest-friendship – Providing an Elucidatory Model for Bronze Age Communication." In P. Skoglund, J. Ling, & U. Bertilsson (Eds.), North Meets South: Theoretical Aspects on the Northern and Southern Rock Art Traditions in Scandinavia (1st ed., Vol. 6, pp. 172–198). Oxbow Books. .
  • Mac Lochlainn, A. (2015). "Xenia" Comhar, 75(12), 38–39. .
  • Manoussakis, J. P. (2011). "The Stranger in the Polis: Hospitality in Greek Myth." In R. Kearney & K. Semonovitch (Eds.), Phenomenologies of the Stranger: Between Hostility and Hospitality (pp. 274–284). Fordham University Press. .
  • Montale, E., & Galassi, J. (1975). "Xenia." Ploughshares, 2(4), 125–135. .
  • Quartarone, L. N. (2023). "Odysseus, Circe, and the Italian Tradition of National Descent." In S. Dova, C. Callaway, & G. A. Gazis (Eds.), Homer in Sicily (pp. 227–250). Parnassos Press – Fonte Aretusa. .
  • Scott, M. (1982). "Philos, Philotēs and Xenia" Acta Classica, 25, 1–19. .
  • Wilkinson, L. A. (2016). "Neither One nor the Other: Socrates as Strange." In H. L. Reid & D. Tanasi (Eds.), Philosopher Kings and Tragic Heroes: Essays on Images and Ideas from Western Greece (Vol. 1, pp. 127–140). Parnassos Press – Fonte Aretusa. .
  • Woodruff, P. (2013). "In Place of Loyalty: Friendship and Adversary Politics in Classical Greece" Nomos, 54, 39–51. .
  • Verheij, M. J. O. (2016). "Hospitality & Homicide: Violation of xenia in Euripides’ “Electra.”" Mnemosyne, 69(5), 760–784. .
  • Xenia A comic-strip explanation of the formula of Xenia or hospitality in Greek Epic by Greek Myth Comix