Water Margin - WikiHQ

Water Margin (), also called Outlaws of the Marsh or All Men Are Brothers, is a Chinese novel from the Ming dynasty that is one of the preeminent Classic Chinese Novels. Attributed to Shi Nai'an, Water Margin was one of the earliest Chinese novels written in vernacular Mandarin Chinese. and some modern scholars have argued the work to be the collective creativity of writers from multiple generations.

The novel is considered one of the masterpieces of early vernacular fiction and Chinese literature. It has introduced readers to some of the best-known characters in Chinese literature, such as Wu Song, Lin Chong, Pan Jinlian, Song Jiang and Lu Zhishen. Water Margin also subverted many moral, political, and social expectations in the traditional East Asian literary canon, and exerted a significant influence on the development of fiction elsewhere in the region, such as on Japanese literature.

Zhang Shuye's biography further describes the activities of Song Jiang and the other outlaws, and tells they were eventually defeated by Zhang.

thumb|right|A flag that says "Enforcing the Way in Heaven's Name" () on [[Mount Liang in Liangshan County.]]

A precursor and blueprint of Water Margin is a compilation of folk tales titled as Old Incidents in the Xuanhe Period of the Great Song Dynasty (), where it also inserts the story of the treacherous ministers of the Song dynasty who controlled the government and caused great suffering to the people. It also serves as a comparison for the story of the heroes of Liangshan. If it is counted with Gong Kai's Praise of the Thirty-six Men of Song Jiang from the same period, both works also mentioned the name of Yan Qing (one of the outlaw characters in Water Margin), as one of the thirty-six rebel leaders of Song Jiang's group. Furthermore, the archetype for Yan Qing's personality in the novel was suspected to be derived from Liang Xing (), a Song general who fought against the Jin Dynasty.

Folk stories about Song Jiang circulated during the Southern Song. The first known source to name Song Jiang's 36 companions was Miscellaneous Observations from the Year of Guixin () by Zhou Mi, written in the 13th century. Among the 36 of Song Jiang's companions, there are names like Lu Junyi, Guan Sheng, Ruan Xiao'er, Ruan Xiaowu, Ruan Xiaoqi, Liu Tang, Hua Rong and Wu Yong. Some of the characters who later became associated with Song Jiang also appeared around this time. They include Sun Li, Yang Zhi, Lin Chong, Lu Zhishen and Wu Song.

According to Ning Jiayu, a Chinese language professor at Nankai University, one theory suggests that Shi Jin was inspired by a real-life figure named Shi Bin (), a rebel leader from Shanxi who lived during the early Southern Song dynasty and was a subordinate of Song Jiang in his early years.

Another outlaw figure allegedly inspired by a real person was Xie Bao. This raw historical kernel fueled speculation by modern Chinese historian and textual critic Wang Liqi (王利器) that the figure was the real life inspiration for the fictionalized Liang Shan bandit hero. However, other Chinese historical critics like Wang Yu and Li Dianyuan were skeptical towards Wang Liqi's theory of this legend-history fusion for lacking supporting evidence to prove that the historical Xie Bao fled from Dengzhou to Jeju, as this conjencture could support the claim that the real life rebel was indeed the inspiration for the fictionalized Xie Bao.

Fang La, one of the primary antagonists in Water Margin, was inspired by the real-life rebel of the same name. His rebellion was linked to the spread of Manichaeism in China during Song dynasty. The rebellion started by Fang La was portrayed as a prototypical "heretical uprising" in Chinese historiography.

Both the Jiajing reign of the Ming dynasty (1521–1568) and the closing years of the Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty (1360s) were marked by a chain of rebellions, which confused scholars a lot as to which of the two inspired the author, and hence when was the book written.

Plot

The opening episode in the novel is the release of the 108 Spirits, imprisoned under an ancient stele-bearing tortoise.

thumb|200px|[[Lu Zhishen uproots a tree (Summer Palace mural)]]

The next chapter describes the rise of Gao Qiu, one of the primary antagonists of the story. Gao abuses his status as a Grand Marshal by oppressing Wang Jin; Wang's father taught Gao a painful lesson when the latter was still a street-roaming ruffian. Wang Jin flees from the capital with his mother and by chance he meets Shi Jin, who becomes his apprentice. The next few chapters tell the story of Shi Jin's friend Lu Zhishen, followed by the story of Lu's sworn brother Lin Chong. Lin Chong is framed by Gao Qiu for attempting to assassinate him, and almost dies in a fire at a supply depot set by Gao's henchmen. He slays his foes and abandons the depot, eventually making his way to Liangshan Marsh, where he becomes an outlaw. Meanwhile, the "Original Seven", led by Chao Gai, rob a convoy of birthday gifts for the Imperial Tutor Cai Jing, another primary antagonist in the novel. They flee to Liangshan Marsh after defeating a group of soldiers sent by the authorities to arrest them, and settle there as outlaws with Chao Gai as their chief. As the story progresses, more people come to join the outlaw band, including military personnel and civil officials who grew tired of serving the corrupt government, as well as men with special skills and talents. Stories of the outlaws are told in separate sections in the following chapters. Connections between characters are vague, but the individual stories are eventually pieced together by chapter 60 when Song Jiang succeeds Chao Gai as the leader of the band after the latter is killed in a battle against the Zeng Family Fortress.

The plot further develops by illustrating the conflicts between the outlaws and the Song government after the Grand Assembly of the 108 outlaws. Song Jiang strongly advocates making peace with the government and seeking redress for the outlaws. After defeating the imperial army in a great battle at Liangshan Marsh, the outlaws eventually receive amnesty from Emperor Huizong. The emperor recruits them to form a military contingent and sends them on campaigns against invaders from the Liao dynasty and rebel forces led by Tian Hu, Wang Qing and Fang La within the Song dynasty's domain. Although the former outlaws eventually emerge victorious against the rebels and Liao invaders, the campaigns also lead to the tragic dissolution of the 108 heroes. At least two-thirds of them die in battle while the surviving ones either return to the imperial capital to receive honours from the emperor and continue serving the Song government, or leave and spend the rest of their lives as commoners elsewhere. Song Jiang himself is eventually poisoned to death by the "Four Treacherous Ministers" – Gao Qiu, Yang Jian, Tong Guan and Cai Jing.

Characters

The 108 Heroes () are at the core of the plot of Water Margin. Based on the Taoist concept that each person's destiny is tied to a "Star of Destiny" (), the 108 Stars of Destiny are stars representing 108 demonic overlords who were banished by the deity Shangdi. Having repented since their expulsion, the 108 Stars are accidentally released from their place of confinement, and are reborn in the world as 108 heroes who band together for the cause of justice. They are divided into the 36 Heavenly Spirits and 72 Earthly Fiends.

Chapters

This outline of chapters is based on a 100 chapters edition. Yang Dingjian's 120 chapters edition includes other campaigns of the outlaws on behalf of Song dynasty, while Jin Shengtan's 70 chapters edition omits the chapters on the outlaws' acceptance of amnesty and subsequent campaigns.

thumb|upright=0.85|A Qing dynasty depiction of the Liangshan heroes battling [[Fang La]]

thumb|upright=0.85|A print from the [[Shanghai Library's collection, portraying the 108 Heroes (detail)]]

{|class="wikitable"

! Chapter(s) !! Main events

| 1 || Marshal Hong releases the 108 spirits

| 2 || The rise of Gao Qiu

| 2–3 || The story of Shi Jin

| 3–7 || The story of Lu Zhishen

| 7–12 || The story of Lin Chong

| 12–13 || The story of Yang Zhi

| 13–20 || The stealing of the birthday gifts by the "Original Seven"

| 20–22 || The story of Song Jiang

| 23–32 || The story of Wu Song

| 32–35 || The story of Hua Rong

| 36–43 || Song Jiang's encounters in Jiangzhou

| 44–47 || The story of Shi Xiu and Yang Xiong

| 47–50 || The three assaults on the Zhu Family Village

| 51–52 || The story of Lei Heng and Zhu Tong

| 53–55 || The outlaws' attack on Gaotangzhou; the search for Gongsun Sheng

| 55–57 || The first imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Huyan Zhuo)

| 57–59 || The outlaws' attack on Qingzhou; Huyan Zhuo's defection to Liangshan

| 59–60 || The outlaws, led by Gongsun Sheng, attack Mount Mangdang

| 60 || The first assault by the outlaws on the Zeng Family Village; the death of Chao Gai

| 60–67 || The story of Lu Junyi; the outlaws attack Daming Prefecture; the second imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Guan Sheng)

| 67 || Guan Sheng defects to Liangshan; The third imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Shan Tinggui and Wei Dingguo)

| 68 || The second assault by the outlaws on the Zeng Family Fortress;

| 69–70 || The outlaws attack Dongping and Dongchang prefectures

| 71–74 || The Grand Assembly; the funny and lethal antics of Li Kui

| 75–78 || Emperor Huizong offers amnesty for the first time; the fourth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Tong Guan)

| 78–80 || The fifth imperial assault on Liangshan Marsh (led by Gao Qiu)

| 81–82 || The outlaws are granted amnesty

| 83–89 || The Liangshan heroes attack the Liao invaders

| 90–99 || The Liangshan heroes attack Fang La

| 100 || The tragic dissolution of the Liangshan heroes

The extended version includes the Liangshan heroes' expeditions against the rebel leaders Tian Hu and Wang Qing prior to the campaign against Fang La.

Reception

thumb|page=21|upright=0.65|A critical commentary of Water Margin by philosopher and writer Li Zhi (1527–1602)

thumb|page=306|upright=0.65|A critical commentary of the novel by Zhong Bojing, 1625

thumb|upright=0.65|A critical commentary on the novel by Jin Shengtan (1608–1661)

Water Margin, praised as an early "masterpiece" of vernacular fiction, is renowned for the "mastery and control" of its mood and tone.

On the other hand, there were also many Ming dynasty writers and scholars who have lauded the novel, as Li Kaixian (1502–1568) writes:

According to Xu Yongqiang of the School of Humanities at Xi'an University of Electronic Science and Technology, there have been approximately 50 monographic series and over 1,000 research and analysis works on the Water Margin from the Ming and Qing dynasties to the present-day, demonstrating its immense influence and establishing "Water Margin Studies" as a prominent discipline of study.

Some of the 108 outlaws internal dynamics exemplifies a key narrative style in Water Margin: strategic juxtaposition of contrasting personalities to heighten dramatic tension. As example, Shi Xiu's meticulous nature stands in sharp relief against Yang Xiong's rough-hewn demeanor, a pairing that underscores their differences and enriches the storytelling. This approach is a hallmark of the novel, evident in other pairings such as the forbearing Lin Chong and the bold Lu Zhishen, or the refined Song Jiang and the blunt Li Kui. Over time, such contrasts have evolved into a longstanding convention in literary expression. These subunits typically feature concise plots and limited casts of characters; the Yang Xiong and Shi Xiu subunit, spanning chapters 44 through 46, exemplifies this with its tightly knit episodes—the brothers' sworn alliance, the wife's infidelity, Shi Xiu's killing of his sister-in-law, and their eventual flight to Liangshan. Far from a mere linear progression, this subtheme employs deliberate alignments and transformations between units and subunits.

Sinologist Lois M. Fusek also framed the parallel between Water Margin, which is revolutionary, glorifying bandits as divinely ordained agents of change; with the novel The Three Sui Quash the Demons' Revolt, which tone more reformist and traditional, deriding such figures—depicted as humble peddlers like noodle-vendors and cake-sellers—as absurd pretenders to heavenly mandate. This mockery underscores a pro-establishment stance, emphasizing swift suppression. Other than that, the temporal momentum complements spatial allusions of Three Suis with Water Margins iconic locales and archetypes creates a satirical mirror-world between those two novels.

Meiji-period Japanese readers hailed the gritty mimesis and dialogue of the novel as uncannily proto-modern attempts at peak Western literature-level "naturalism". From the Republican period, Communist critics have invariably praised Water Margin as a great revolutionary novel, which "exposes the ugliness of feudal bureaucratic systems, portrays the heroes' actions and minds, celebrates their rebellious spirits, and reflects the class struggle between the oppressed masses and the ruling class", and they conceive of the Liangshan band as the vanguard of a class-conscious peasant force striving for enlightened political and economic revolution.

Themes

Religion

upright=0.85|thumb|A Taoist manuscript from [[Li County, Hunan|Li County, Hunan contains codifications of talismans for each of the 108 protagonists from Water Margin, 19th century]]

The motif of pairings between 36 and 72 stars, possibly inspired from Dipper, were common among Chinese mythologies and folk tales, including Water Margin, which represented by the number of its protagonists. The religious theme of these 108 demons that incarnated into the 108 Liangshan bandits apparently drew inspiration from the 36 heavenly spirits and 72 earth fiends that also appeared in a later Chinese vernacular novel titled Investiture of the Gods. In that novel, the 108 demons were gathered by Jiang Taigong to fight against Di Xin. Liu Ts'un-yan added that the motif of 108 stars (36 spirits and 72 fiends representatives) constellation which appeared in both works were influenced by Buddhism and Taoism.

Others analyzed Li Kui, one of the most savage Liangshan bandit characters, in more religious aspects, by quoting from the words of Luo Zhenren (a Taoist immortal in the novel who comments on the characters' fates) and a famous line from Laozi's Tao Te Ching (chapter 5): " ("Heaven and Earth are impartial and treat all beings as disposable "straw dogs" used in rituals"). This portrays the spiritual character of Li Kui as being representative of the chaotic force of nature, blending divine indifference with animalistic instincts.

Furthermore, both Victor Purcell and Joseph W. Esherick have recorded that Water Margin—along with The Romance of the Three kingdoms and Investiture of the Gods— were quite influential for the religious Belief of the radical Boxer movement in shaping their ideology, which became the reason for Qing government to ban the novel in 1799. As Daniel L. Overmyer observes, northerners canonization of Investiture of the Gods and southerners veneration of Water Margin, illustrates their symbiotic role in faith: a subversive tool empowering the illiterate through heroic divinity. In Ming dynasty, lesser-known female deities surpassed the elite Queen Mother of the West in vernacular novels like Water Margin and Investiture of the Gods. Rooted in Chinese folk religion, likely inspiring syncretic sectarian icons such as the Venerable Mother Guanyin. These "post-menopausal" goddesses embody pure motherliness—nurturing wisdom without childbirth's mess or sexual desire's pitfalls—aligning with Confucian purity yet excising femininity's "negatives" like vulnerability and passion. However, this desexualized ideal reinforces gender binaries, reflecting Ming anxieties over female sexuality amid orthodoxy-heterodoxy clashes.

Politics

thumb|left|upright=1.15|[[Lin Chong in the snowstorm (Summer Palace mural)]]

A major portion of the novel is made up of a series of connected stories, each recounting the making of a hero, his sufferings under an unjust social system and his resort to banditry as a relief from political persecution; hence, the expression or "being driven to rebel". In this perspective, the outlaws belong to the "disordered people" rather than the "thieves", and "for disorder" is the helpless choice. History and literature critic Shang Wei viewed Water Margin as a one of a kind novel which concerned about people's history ("petty history"), dynastic cycle topics, and among many others.

Traditionally, it is believed that "entice others to thieve" and "loyalty" are the two basic themes of Water Margin. By the time of the late Qing dynasty, bourgeois revolutionaries began to interpret the novel from the point view of Western bourgeois thought such as liberty, equality, and human rights, seeing the book as "the beginnings of democracy and civil society". Since the 1950s, the "Peasant Uprising" hypothesis has become one of the most influential and widespread interpretations in the study of the themes of the novel. Other influential old and new understandings have emerged since the reform and opening up such as Loyalty-traitor Struggle View, Citizen View, Tramp View, and Fighting against Corruption View. The literary critic and novelist Wang Zhongqi wrote in 1907:

thumb|right|upright=0.85|Seal of the [[Hongmen, the precursor of Tiandihui secret society, 19th century]]

According to Li Shi (1471–1538), the authorial rationale behind the counterfactual victory of the Southern Song over the Liao at the end of the novel stems from the patriotic motivations of the novel's alleged authors, Shi Nai'an and Luo Guanzhong—both of whom lived during the Yuan dynasty. Furthermore, Water Margin has been politically influential throughout subsequent Chinese history: while several emperors and Confucian elites banned the novel for its violent and rebellious content, the challengers of the established order, from Taiping rebels in the mid 19th century to Communist revolutionaries, honored it for the same reason. Zuo Maodi () (1601–1645), a Ming dynasty vice minister of war, viewed the Water Margin as a book that taught people to be criminals. He believed that if the book was not banned, it would impact the societal atmosphere negatively. Chongzhen Emperor of the Ming dynasty, acting on his advice, banned the book. Chen Chen, a Ming loyalist, saw the novel as an expression of Song resistance to the Mongol invaders in the Yuan dynasty. Historian James Bunyan Parsons argues that Water Margin may have had some influence on Zhang Xianzhong's rebellion. Based on Parsons' hypothesis, Mark R. E. Meulenbeld points out that Zhang Xianzhong was recorded using the novels as a source for emulation, as he quoted an early Qing observer who ascribes Zhang's fondness with the novel, "The shrewdness of Zhang Xianzhong included him making people read books like Three Kingdoms and Water Margin every day..." It was attested by citation from Perry Link, that during the end of Ming dynasty period, rebels in Hebei used slogans such as "killing the rich to help the poor" and "carrying out the Dao on behalf of Heaven", which were popularized by both Water Margin and Romance of the Three Kingdoms as a form of "remedial protest".

King Yeongjo of Joseon, the first Joseon monarch to leave explicit records of reading Water Margin, frequently cited the novel's plotlines and characters in court discussions between him and his ministers, and it exerted a tangible influence on the handling of Korean state affairs.

Yu Wanchun instead gave his negative assessment as he saw its polemical tone and encouragement of brigandage and revolt as a potential threat to the state. Late Ming dynasty scholar Jin Shengtan criticized Shi Nai'an as not motivated by traditional scholarly venting resentment through writing but as a way of leisure. Jin also questioned the inconsistency of Song Jiang's characterization according to Confucian morality.

In the aftermath of Qing dynasty's literary inquisition by Qianlong emperor, the novel saw another boom of mass popularity and a wave of massive publications followed. This attracted the concern of a Qing official named Ding Richang, who pointed out its polemical social effect, although he did not outright pursue banning the book.

thumb|upright=0.85|A Qing dynasty [[New Year picture depicting the story of Wu Song in ten chapters]]

The ethics of outlaw loyalty permeated even the Post-1853 grand Taiping Heavenly Kingdom shifted toward Water Margin-inspired ethics, emphasizing blind loyalty to leaders and "yi"-style camaraderie. This suggests a tactical evolution from religious millenarianism to pragmatic, bandito-like solidarity, blending ancient monarchical fealty with subversive brotherhood. stated that the main concept of the politico-literary "model" which was borrowed by the Taipings was the concepts of "Loyalty and Fraternity" (忠義) which was followed by the Liangshan outlaws in the book.

Elizabeth J. Perry's investigation with Anhui University scholars has concluded that the Nian Rebellion's slogan banner, "Preparing the Way for Heaven, killing the rich to relieve the poor; Alliance Leader of the Great Chinese, Chang", which borrowed from the White Lotus sect, was inspired by the Water Margin, emulating the outlaw heroes of Liangshan.

The Baguadao sect used banners with the inscription "Entrusted by Heaven to Prepare the Way" during Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813, a reference to the Water Margin novel.

Meanwhile, in the early-modern era, Water Margin has long and broad influence beyond its narrative as the inspiration for various subversive movements. The Triad (organized crime), enigmatic fraternal orders which were born in the Qing era's underbelly as a subversive force, blended messianic zeal (e.g., their slogan "Oppose the Qing and restore the Ming") with demonological rituals for political legitimacy. Their adoption of Water Margin's "yi" (unquestioning comradeship) rejects Confucian norms of duty and righteousness, positioning them as outlaw heroes. This unorthodoxy, combined with ritualistic elements, frames them as agents of political rebellion rather than mere criminals. Novelist Zhang Henshui felt that Water Margins emphasis on the patriotism as Liangshan outlaws join Song government troops against the Jin invaders, could inspire anti-Japanese feeling among the Chinese living in Shanghai.

thumb|upright=0.85|Three Attacks on Zhu Village (), woodblock print, [[Jiaqing Emperor|Jiaqing Period (1796–1820)]]

Secret societies and criminal organizations during the Republic era also adopted code like Water Margins martial fraternity, such as the Green Gang From Shanghai and the Blue Shirts Society, an unofficial secret police of the Chiang Kai-shek regime. One of the Blue Shirts founding members, Dai Li, developed the organization based on the value of heroism and outlaw martial artists of the Water Margin, where the recruits drawn from the lower strata of society: jugglers, wrestlers, itinerant entertainers, journeymen traders, jailers, executioners, thieves, and gangsters.

Water Margin also found its legs in the history of Chinese Communist Party, where the novel enjoyed the party's endorsement since the 1930s for their political aim.

Another reason for Mao's criticism of the Water Margin was a move to curtail the possibility of armed coup by Lin Biao's faction. As Mao said, "The rebels in Water Margin fought against dishonest officials but did not oppose the emperor. Later they capitulated. Take note, revisionism may emerge in China."

thumb|upright=0.85|Song Qing, Li Jun, and Ruan Xiao'er depicted in a Qing dynasty Kangxi period plate painting

There are two major social themes in Water Margin. The first one is , Li Wenzhi concluded in his book, Popular revolts of the late Ming, that the concept of yi which was supposed to be a regulatory code for the bandit chieftains, rebel and secret society leaders swore brotherhood together. This means the Youxia (Chinese knight-errant) motif in the novel expected one to focus on male bonding and unmoved by romance or sex. Its more complete form is . Most of the existing editions of Water Margin in the Ming dynasty put "Zhongyi" in an obvious position, and requires one-dimensional "minister" obedience to "monarch", which is repeated many times in the text.

The second one is , The hǎo hàn code values freedom and brotherhood above everything else, though it means one should sacrifice his own wife and children. Portrayals of female hǎo hàn also existed in the novel, but they are often depicted as bloodthirsty as their male counterparts.

thumb|upright=0.85|page=21|Song Jiang, Lin Chong, and Zhu Tong depicted in a Qing dynasty Kangxi period plate painting

Susan L. Mann writes that the "desire for male camaraderie" is "far from a mere plotline," for it is a basic theme of this and other classic novels. She places the novel's male characters in a tradition of men's culture of mutual trust and reciprocal obligation, such as figures known as the Chinese knight-errant. In this regard, she quoted the words of Sima Qian, the Han dynasty historian, devoted a section to biographies: "Their words were always sincere and trustworthy, and their actions always quick and decisive. They were always true to what they promised, and without regard to their own persons, they would rush into dangers threatening others." She finds such figures in this and other novels, such as Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Journey to the West, all of which dramatized the "empathic emotional attraction between men who appreciate and play off against one another's complementary qualities."

Licentious and treacherous women are another recurring theme. Modern critics have debated whether Water Margin is misogynistic. Beautiful seductresses are frequently positioned as a danger to masculine heroes in the novel. Among them is Pan Jinlian, the sister-in-law of Wu Song, who has later become an archetypal femme fatale and one of the most notorious villainesses of Chinese culture. Sexual abstinence is seemingly required for membership in the brotherhood, as Song Jiang asserts that "in the gallant fraternity, anyone who 'wastes his marrow' (sex with women not for the purpose of reproduction) is a joke". There are also other portrayals of women in the novel, however, such as the three main heroines, Hu Sanniang, Gu Dasao, and Sun Erniang, as well as Qiongying, whose presence defies the typical portrayal of women at that time. while Phillip S. Y. Sun of The Chinese University of Hong Kong argues that the hostility against women in the novel stems from a basic attitude that frowns upon amorous passion, and since passion is not good, charming women are received with suspicion and generally regarded as inauspicious. On the other hand, some have noted that Water Margin actually made great progress in understanding women's emotions compared to Song and Yuan huaben fictional books. According to Yenna Wu, Water Margin emerges as the first major Chinese novel that consciously uses extensive dream episodes as a literary and aesthetic device, and these dreams subvert the misogynistic tendencies in the narrative not only through their symbolic feminine aspects but also through positive feminine figures.

The novel is notable for its numerous violent plots and bloody descriptions, including both satisfying revenge killings and indiscriminate slaughter without principles, as seen in Wu Song, as well as the frenzied bloodlust of some heroes such as Li Kui.. When celebrating a victory, as educator William Sin writes, the protagonists sometimes "share their enemies' flesh piece by piece, an action combining cannibalism with lingchi", the slow slicing of somebody to death. This type of violent imagery in the novel is mentioned in a "causal tone", with human flesh being eaten not just "in acts of revenge", but also "as a way of living". Noting that the outlaws celebrated in the novel were nevertheless widely regarded as "heroes and heroines" over centuries, he states that one cannot divide "the meanings of [their] actions" from "the cultural background under which they [were] performed" and that it would be "hasty" to project concepts and values of today "onto the situation of a distant culture" where they may not have applied.

thumb|upright=0.85|A woodblock print collected at the [[Shanghai History Museum depicts Lu Junyi disemboweling his steward and adulterous wife]]

Several modern scholars have explained the narration of vulgar, grotesque scenes in the novel through Mikhail Bakhtin's "Carnivalesque" theory, or national interpretations, such as Zen thought and Yangmingism. Chinese art theorist Yan Xianglin claims that Water Margin subverts the traditional ethics principle and the cardinal virtue rules of "the Confucianism, the Taoism, and the Mohism", decomposes traditional practice rational thoughts, esteems the instinct impulse of primitive violence and unreasonableness, narrates the historical and civilized basic maxim through irony, and appreciates the aesthetic sense of non-human nature and the inhumanity principle.

Liu Zaifu decries the novel as cultural poison, arguing that Water Margin, together with Romance of the Three Kingdoms, has sown people's "moral downfall". There is also a popular anecdotal quip in China which says, "The young should not read The Water Margin while the old should not read The Romance of the Three Kingdoms", criticizing its violent and machismo effects on young male audiences. By the late 19th century, the reformer Liang Qichao criticized Water Margin along with another novel, Dream of the Red Chamber as "incitement to robbery and lust". Liangyan Ge called it a novel "full of scenes of brutality and sadism, representing only one extremity of Chinese culture". Yu Xiangdou and Li Zhuowu justified the violence of Water Margin on political and moral grounds in their prefaces to the novel: Yu justified the actions of the heroes as righteous rebellion against the corruption of the Song dynasty officials, while Li centered on the notion that the novel was written "to give vent to deep indignation" at the historical tragedy that befell the northern Song, and saw the protagonists as paragons of virtuous conduct beyond the Confucian ideal.

Since fiction was not at first a prestigious genre in the Chinese literary world, authorship of early novels was often not carefully attributed and may be unknowable. The authorship of Water Margin is still in some sense uncertain, and the text in any case derived from many sources and involved many editorial hands. While the novel was traditionally attributed to Shi Nai'an, of whose life not much is reliably known, recent scholars think that the novel, or portions of it, may have been written or revised by Luo Guanzhong (the author of Romance of the Three Kingdoms).

Shi Nai'an

Many scholars believe that the first 70 chapters were indeed written by Shi Nai'an; however the authorship of the final 30 chapters is often questioned, with some speculating that it was instead written by Luo Guanzhong, who may have been a student of Shi.

Shi Hui

thumb|200px|Illustration from a 15th-century woodcut edition

Another candidate is Shi Hui (), a nanxi (southern opera) playwright who lived between the late Yuan dynasty and early Ming dynasty. Xu Fuzuo () of the Ming dynasty mentioned in Sanjia Cunlao Weitan () that Junmei (; Shi Hui's courtesy name)'s intention in writing Water Margin was to entertain people, and not to convey any message. During the Qing dynasty, Shi Hui and Shi Nai'an were linked, suggesting that they are actually the same person. An unnamed writer wrote in Chuanqi Huikao Biaomu () that Shi Nai'an's given name was actually "Hui", courtesy name "Juncheng" (君承), and he was a native of Hangzhou. Sun Kaidi () also wrote in Bibliography of Chinese Popular Fiction that "Nai'an" was Shi Hui's pseudonym. Later studies revealed that Water Margin contained lines in the Jiangsu and Zhejiang variety of Chinese, and that You Gui Ji (), a work of Shi Hui, bore some resemblance to Water Margin, hence the theory that Water Margin was authored by Shi Hui.

Guo Xun

Early scholars attributed the authorship to Guo Xun (), a politician who lived in the Ming dynasty. Shen Defu (), a late Ming dynasty scholar, mentioned in Wanli Yehuo Bian () that Guo wrote Water Margin. Shen Guoyuan () added in Huangming Congxin Lu () that Guo mimicked the writing styles of Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin to write Guochao Yinglie Ji (). Qian Xiyan () also stated in Xi Gu () that Guo edited Water Margin before. Hu Shih countered in his Research on Water Margin () that Guo Xun's name was used as a disguise for the real author of Water Margin. Dai Bufan () had a differing view, as he suspected that Guo wrote Water Margin, and then used "Shi Nai'an" to conceal his identity as the author of the novel.

Editions and translations

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The textual history of the novel is extraordinarily complex for there are early editions of varying lengths, different parts, and variations. The scholar Scott Gregory comments that the text could be freely altered by later editors and publishers who also could add prefaces or commentaries. Not until the early 20th-century were there studies which began to set these questions in order, and there is still disagreement. The earliest components of the Water Margin (in manuscript copies) were from the late 14th century. A printed copy dating from the Jiaqing reign (1507–1567) titled Jingben Zhongyi Zhuan (), is preserved in the Shanghai Library. The earliest extant complete printed edition of Water Margin is a 100-chapter version published in 1589. Its preface, attributed to Tiandu Foreign Minister, praises the novel as a national medicine. An edition, with 120 chapters and an introduction by Yang Dingjian (), has been preserved from the reign of the Wanli Emperor (1573–1620) in the Ming dynasty. Yet other editions were published in the early Qing dynasty.

thumb|300px|Pages of an illustrated woodblock version of Water Margin by [[Hokusai, 1805–1838, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art]]

thumb|300px|Illustrations in a 1610 edition of the novel depicting Wang Qing crossing the river, from the Metropolitan Museum of Art

thumb|300px|page=32|Pages from volume six of the novel in an edition collected by the [[Tianjin Library]]

One of the most widely read versions is a truncated recension published by Jin Shengtan in 1643, reprinted many times, which became a standard text for later editions and many translations. Jin provided three introductions that praised the novel as a work of genius and inserted commentaries into the text that explained how to read the novel. He cut matter that he thought irrelevant, reduced the number of chapters to 70 by turning chapter 1 into a prologue, and added an ending in which all 108 heroes are executed. This edition fell from prominence since the political tendency of Jin's recension was considered "arch-reactionary" by revolutionaries in the twentieth century. Its popularity has since been superseded in mainland China by the 100-chapter version based on the Ming dynasty Rongyutang edition published by the People's Literature Publishing House in 1975.

The various editions can be classified into simplified and complex. The simplified editions, edited for less sophisticated audiences, can contain all the events but in less detail. There is no way of knowing whether a simplified edition came before or was derived from another by adding or cutting text.

Simplified editions

The simplified editions include stories on the outlaws being granted amnesty, followed by their campaigns against the Liao dynasty, Tian Hu, Wang Qing and Fang La, all the way until Song Jiang's death. At one point, the later chapters were compiled into a separate novel, titled Sequel to Water Margin (), which is attributed to Luo Guanzhong.

Known simplified editions of Water Margin include:

A 115-chapter edition, Masterpieces of the Han and Song dynasties ()
A 110-chapter edition, Chronicles of Heroes ()
A 164-chapter edition, combined with Sequel to Water Margin
A 109-chapter edition, 2-Carved Heroes' Compendium
A 124-chapter version, Daodao Tang Edition
A 104-chapter edition, Water Margin Chronicles Commentary

Complex editions

The complex editions are more descriptive and circulated more widely than their simplified counterparts. The three main versions of the complex editions are a 100-chapter, a 120-chapter and a 70-chapter edition. The most commonly modified parts of the complex editions are the stories on what happened after the outlaws are granted amnesty.

100-chapter edition: Includes the outlaws' campaigns against the Liao dynasty and Fang La after they have been granted amnesty.
120-chapter edition: An extended version of the 100-chapter edition, includes the outlaws' campaigns against Tian Hu and Wang Qing (chapters 91 to 110).
71-chapter edition: Edited by Jin Shengtan in the late Ming dynasty, this edition uses chapter 1 as a prologue and ends at chapter 71 of the original version, and does not include the stories about the outlaws being granted amnesty and their campaigns.
There is another 120-chapter version known as Mei's Collection Water Margin. The first 70 chapters of this version are consistent with Jin Shengtan's Guanhuatang version, but the last 50 chapters are completely different from other versions. There is no plot of recruiting and Liangshan still fights against the government. There is controversy about the authenticity of the last 50 chapters of this version and the value of this version itself, with many people believing that the last 50 chapters were forged by Mei Jihe.

Non-English translations

Water Margin has been translated into many languages, including German, Italian, Russian, Latin, Mongolian, Uyghur, Kazakh, Tibetan, and Korean. The book was translated into Manchu as Möllendorff: Sui hū bithe. Jacques Dars translated the 70 chapter version into French in 1978, reprinted several times. The book was first translated into Thai in 1867, originally in Samud Thai (Thai paper book) format, consisting of 82 volumes in total. It was printed in western style in 1879 and distributed commercially by Dan Beach Bradley, an American Protestant missionary to Siam.

thumb|An illustration of the novel from an early Qing edition

Japanese translations date back to at least 1757, when the first volume of an early Suikoden (Water Margin rendered in Japanese) was printed. Other early adaptations include Takebe Ayakari's 1773 Japanese Water Margin (Honcho suikoden), the 1783 Women's Water Margin (Onna suikoden), and Santō Kyōden's 1801 Chushingura Water Margin (Chushingura suikoden). In 1805, Kyokutei Bakin released a Japanese translation of the Water Margin illustrated by Hokusai. The book, called the New Illustrated Edition of the Suikoden (Shinpen Suikogaden), was a success during the Edo period and spurred a Japanese "Suikoden" craze.

In 1827, publisher Kagaya Kichibei commissioned Utagawa Kuniyoshi to produce a series of woodblock prints illustrating the 108 heroes in Water Margin. The 1827–1830 series, called 108 Heroes of the Water Margin or Tsuzoku Suikoden goketsu hyakuhachinin no hitori, catapulted Kuniyoshi to fame. It also brought about a craze for multicoloured pictorial tattoos that covered the entire body from the neck to the mid-thigh.

Following the great commercial success of the Kuniyoshi series, other ukiyo-e artists were commissioned to produce prints of the Water Margin heroes, which began to be shown as Japanese heroes rather than the original Chinese personages.

Among these later series was Yoshitoshi's 1866–1867 series of 50 designs in Chuban size, which are darker than Kuniyoshi's and feature strange ghosts and monsters.

A recent Japanese translation is

English translations

In the late Qing Dynasty, missionaries and scholars in China such as E. C. Bridgman, Alexander Wylie, S. W. William, Herbert Giles, Harry Parkes and others successively published introductions of characters or book reviews on the novel Water Margin. In 1872–1873, the first partial English translation of Water Margin was serialized and published in The China Review.

71-chapter version

Pearl S. Buck was the first English translator of the entire 71-chapter version. Titled All Men are Brothers and published in 1933. It was revised in 1937 including the Introduction/Foreword attributed to Shi Naian. The book was well received by the American public, but also criticised for its errors, such as the mistranslation of Lu Zhishen's nickname "Flowery Monk" as "Priest Hwa" and Sun Erniang's "Female Yaksha" as "Night Ogre". Lu Xun argued that the title of the translation was unsuitable because "the idea of 'brothers' failed to accurately capture the precise meaning of the novel".
In 1937, another complete translation appeared, titled Water Margin, by J. H. Jackson, edited by Fang Lo-Tien. A translation of Jin's Preface was published in 1935 by the Shanghai journal, The China Critic..
The J. H. Jackson translation was revised, restored, and updated by Edwin H. Lowe in 2009 and published by Tuttle Classics.

100-chapter version

Later translations of the 71-chapter version include Chinese-naturalised scholar Sidney Shapiro's Outlaws of the Marsh (1980) that also does not include the verse. However, as it was published during the Cultural Revolution, this edition received little attention then. It is a translation of a combination of both the 71-chapter and 100-chapter versions.

120-chapter version

The most recent translation, titled The Marshes of Mount Liang (1994-2002), by Alex and John Dent-Young, is a five-volume translation of the 120-chapter version. It includes a prologue but omits the foreword by Shi Nai'an and some passages related to the official details of the Ming dynasty.

Differences

These translations differ in the selection of texts and completeness. The Jackson and the revised Buck translations of 1937 contain the foreword attributed to Shi Nai'an. The Shapiro translation omits the prologue, the foreword, and most of the poems. The Dent-Young translation omits the author's foreword and the passages concerning the Ming dynasty administration and the translators admitted to compromising some details and retaining inconsistencies in their Brief Note on the Translation.

Sequels and spinoffs

There are several noteworthy direct sequels and spinoffs to the Water Margin. Some tell subsequent stories of the heroes fighting the Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty, infighting of the heroes, or moving to Siam.

Jin Ping Mei

Jin Ping Mei is an erotic novel of manners written under the pen-name Lanling Xiaoxiao Sheng () ("The Scoffing Scholar of Lanling") in the latter half of the 16th century. The novel is framed as a spinoff of Water Margin based on the story of Wu Song avenging his brother in Water Margin, but the focus is on Ximen Qing's sexual relations with other women, including Pan Jinlian. The intervening sections, however, differ in almost every way from Water Margin. In the course of the novel, Ximen has 19 sexual partners, including his six wives and mistresses, and a male servant.

Scholars generally consider the book as the first Chinese novel that was wholly the creation of one author and had no antecedent in the oral tradition. The influential author Lu Xun, writing in the 1920s, called it "the most famous of the novels of manners" of the Ming dynasty, and reported the opinion of the Ming dynasty critic, Yuan Hongdao, that it was "a classic second only to Water Margin." He added that the novel is "in effect a condemnation of the whole ruling class."

Shuihu Houzhuan

thumb|200px|An image of the novel Shuihu Houzhuan (The Later Story of Water Margin), published in the third year of the Kangxi reign of the Qing dynasty (1664)

A sequel to Water Margin titled Shuihu Houzhuan () (The Later Story of Water Margin) that authored by , a writer from the early era Qing dynasty and native of Zhejiang, was released In 1664.

Shuihu Houzhuan comprises 40 chapters, organized into two parts. Its plot diverges somewhat from the original Water Margin. The first 30 chapters focus on the chaotic state of China, with the Liangshan heroes gradually assembling, reaching a total of 32 by the 29th chapter. The final 10 chapters depict the heroes' decision to journey to a foreign land, where they encounter a wise monarch and benevolent people, leading to a joyful conclusion. Chen Chen took the pen name "Yandang Shanqiao" and giving commentary for the published edition and claimed the original script was written by an anonymous "loyalist of Song" who lived during the early years of Yuan dynasty rule.

According to Hu Shih, the theme of this sequel work reflects Chen Chen's grief and anger about the fall of Ming dynasty, which he analogizes with the fall of Northern Song to the Yuan dynasty, which is the backdrop era of the Water Margin story.

The novel also continues to promote the themes of loyalty and resistance to foreign aggression through rebellion. However, the methods of these reformed Liangshan heroes in Siam are very different from that of the original group, as they resorted to less violence, held family happiness in high regard and showed awareness of the importance of civil government system; which followed by setting their end goal in establishing a state in Siam. In the end, the work expresses the hopes, fears and resentment of the Ming loyalists, and the anti-Qing movement.

Overall, Hu Shih does not rate this sequel work with high praise, with the exception of some of its chapters which stand out from others, such as "Zhongmu County's Elimination of Traitors" in volume 22. The book also described Yan Qing's visit to Emperor Huizong of Song , which was written in a sad and touching way, far surpassing the other chapters.

Yu Wanchun disagreed that the Liangshan outlaws are loyal and righteous heroes, and was determined to portray them as ruthless mass murderers and destroyers, hence he wrote Dang Kou Zhi. As a result, he portrays the Liangshan outlaws here as the antagonists, only to be eliminated by the designated protagonists. The protagonist of this novel is Chen Xizhen, a Taoist and martial arts master who turned outlaw, and ended opposing the Liangshan outlaws led by Song Jian. This reflects the contradictory and tangled psychology of Yu Wanchun, who was a fan of "Water Margin" and wanted to inherit Jin Shengtan 's ideas to attack the rebels.

Due to its pro-establishment and anti-rebellion theme, this sequel was supported and endorsed by government of Qing. However, the Taiping rebels disliked the nuance of the novel and ordered the burning of the book in every place they occupied.

Fictional stories and novels about Yue Fei

Some spinoffs of Water Margin were intertwined with Song General Yue Fei.

A sequel novel titled Hou Shuihu Zhuan (後水滸傳; Water Margin Transmission), attributed to the pseudonymous author "Master of the Blue Lotus Chamber" (Qing Lian Shi Zhu Ren, 青蓮室主人) was written during the 17th century, and it spans 45 chapters across 10 volumes and was first printed in the Qianlong era (1736–1795) by Su Zheng Tang (素政堂). Chapters 31 to 45 of the novel depicted general Yue Fei, portrayed as a divine general, suppresses the rebels at Caibo Bridge. Defeated, the heroes ascend to heaven, enlightened by a karmic epilogue emphasizing redemption through reincarnation.

The Qing dynasty writer Qian Cai wrote the life story of Yue Fei and the outlaws Lin Chong and Lu Junyi in a Sin off story titled novel written by Qian Cai titled General Yue Fei () (1684), which consisted of 80 chapters, stated that the latter were former students of the general's martial arts tutor, Zhou Tong. However, literary critic C. T. Hsia commented that the connection was a fictional one created by the author. Additionally, the novla mentions about the partiicipation of one of the Liangshan outlaws, Huyan Zhuo, in a campaign under the lead of Yue Fei defending against thr invasion by the Jin dynasty. The novel tell the death of Huyan Zhuo on the hands of a Jin prince, Wuzhu, amid combat.

The Republican era folktale Swordplay Under the Moon, by Wang Shaotang, further intertwines Yue Fei's history with the outlaws by adding Wu Song to the list of Zhou's former students. The tale is set in the background of Wu Song's mission to Kaifeng, prior to the murder of his brother. Zhou tutors Wu in the "rolling dragon" style of swordplay during his one-month stay in the capital city. It also said that Zhou is a sworn brother of Lu Zhishen and shares the same nickname with the executioner-turned-outlaw Cai Fu.

More Modern literary fictional biography that linked Zhou Tong with the Liangshan outlaws was Iron Arm, Golden Sabre novel in 1986, a Modern novel prequel to The Story of Yue Fei. This novel later adapted into a ten volume Lianhuanhua-style comic book called The Legend of Zhou Tong in 1987.

Can Shui Hu

A sequel novel which titled Can Shui Hu, or Remnant Water Margin (), was written by (pen name of Cheng Qingyu, ; 1880–1942); a novelist associated with the Southern Society () literary group. It was serialized in 1933 in the New Jiangsu Daily () under the pseudonym "Yi Su" (), and reprinted by Heilongjiang People's Publishing House in 1997. The novel exists and is a well-documented sequel to the 70-chapter edition of Water Margin. It composed 16 chapters that followed the original simple Water Margin version of 70 chapters, spanning from chapter 71 to 86.

The narrative picks up directly from Lu Junyi's prophetic nightmare, followed by the split of the Liangshan brotherhood due to ideological rifts. the leaders divide into two camps over the issue whether they should surrender to the government and seek pardon, or keep being outlaws. Lu Junyi's faction (pro-surrender) seeks alliance with Northern Song border general named Zong Shidao (). Song Jiang's faction, which composed of 36 core members, refused the integration aspiration by Lu Junyi, and clinging to their autonomy as outlaws. Some of the Liangshan heroes fell during the ensuing civil war, such as Li Kui's death by Hu Sanniang and Dong Ping's poisoning by Cheng Wanli's Daughter. After Liangshan's defeat, Song Jiang's faction flees to Haizhou (), where they are captured by Zhang Shuye (), the historical Song general who subdued Song Jiang in 1121 (per History of Song).

Lu's faction, honoring old bonds, petitions the court to spare Song's life—sparing execution but dooming the remnants to further tragedy. The book culminates in total annihilation: Surrenders lead to executions or exile, battles claim the rest, and Song Jiang is ultimately also implied being killed.

Frank Chin's novel, Donald Duk, contains many references to the Water Margin. Song Jiang and Li Kui make several appearances in the protagonist's dreams.

Rise of the Water Margin () is a novel launched in 2022 by the American author Christopher Bates in which all of the Chinese characters and their approximate character arcs are 21st century modernizations of people in The Water Margin. In this cyber-thriller, the characters of Lin Chong, Lu Da, Gao Qiu, Gao Yanei, Zhang Zhenniang, Fu An, Cai Jing, Chai Jin, Wang Lun, Zhu Gui, Zhao Ji, Li Shishi and many others appear. The location of Liangshanpo is a deserted ghost city known to its investors as Mount Liang Swamp, repurposed as a hacker enclave.

Eiji Yoshikawa wrote Shin Suikoden (), which roughly translates to "New Tales from the Water Margin".

The Water Outlaws, a novel by S. L. Huang, is a gender-flipped version of the story in which many of the outlaws are queer women.

Kenzo Kitakata's epic novel series is a retelling of Water Margin, modifying some characters' abilities and personalities to reimagine it as a revolutionary movement.

In addition to its colossal popularity in China, Water Margin has been identified as one of the most influential works in the development of early modern Japanese literature.

Comics

thumb|200px|[[Yang Lin (Water Margin)|Yang Lin, a hero from the novel, from Utagawa Kuniyoshi's series of woodblock prints illustrating the 108 Suikoden]]

Water Margin is referred to in numerous Japanese manga, such as Tetsuo Hara and Buronson's Fist of the North Star, and Masami Kurumada's Fūma no Kojirō, Otokozaka and Saint Seiya. In both works of fiction, characters bearing the same stars of the Water Margin characters as personal emblems of destiny are featured prominently. A Japanese manga called Akaboshi: Ibun Suikoden, based on the story of Water Margin, was serialised in Weekly Shonen Jump.

A Hong Kong manhua series based on Water Margin was also created by the artist Lee Chi Ching. A reimagined series based on Water Margin, 108 Fighters, was created by Andy Seto.

Between 1978 and 1988, the Italian artist Magnus published four acts of his work I Briganti, which places the Water Margin story in a setting that mixes Chinese, Western and science fiction (in Flash Gordon style) elements. Before his death in 1996, the four completed "acts" were published in a volume by Granata Press; two following "acts" were planned but never completed.

In 2007, Asiapac Books published a graphic narrative version of portions of the novel.

Film

Most film adaptations of Water Margin were produced by Hong Kong's Shaw Brothers Studio and mostly released in the 1970s and 1980s. They include: The Water Margin (1972), directed by Chang Cheh and others; Delightful Forest (1972), directed by Chang Cheh again and starring Ti Lung as Wu Song; Pursuit (1972), directed by Kang Cheng and starring Yueh Hua as Lin Chong; All Men Are Brothers (1975), a sequel to The Water Margin (1972) directed by Chang Cheh and others; and Tiger Killer (1982), directed by Li Han-hsiang and starring Ti Lung as Wu Song again.

Other non-Shaw Brothers production include: All Men Are Brothers: Blood of the Leopard, also known as Water Margin: True Colours of Heroes (1992), which centers on the story of Lin Chong, Lu Zhishen and Gao Qiu, starring Tony Leung Ka-fai, Elvis Tsui and others; and Troublesome Night 16 (2002), a Hong Kong horror comedy film which spoofs the story of Wu Song avenging his brother.

Television

Television series directly based on Water Margin include: Nippon Television's The Water Margin (1973), which was later released in other countries outside Japan; Outlaws of the Marsh (1983), which won a Golden Eagle Award; CCTV's The Water Margin (1998), produced by Zhang Jizhong and featuring fight choreography by Yuen Woo-ping; All Men Are Brothers (2011), directed by Kuk Kwok-leung and featuring actors from mainland China, Hong Kong and Taiwan.

Animations adapted from Water Margin include: Giant Robo: The Animation (1992), an anime series based on Mitsuteru Yokoyama's manga series; Outlaw Star (1998), another cartoon series which makes several references to the novel; Hero: 108 (2010), a flash animated series produced by various companies and shown on Cartoon Network. Galaxy Divine Wind Jinraiger, an anime in the J9 Series planned for a 2016 broadcast, has also cited Water Margin as its inspiration.

The 2004 Hong Kong television series Shades of Truth, produced by TVB, features three characters from the novel who are reincarnated into present-day Hong Kong as a triad boss and two police officers respectively.

Video games

Video games based on the novel include Konami's console RPG series Suikoden and Koei's strategy game Bandit Kings of Ancient China. Other games with characters based on the novel or were partly inspired by it include: Jade Empire, which features a character "Black Whirlwind" who is based on Li Kui; Data East's Outlaws Of The Lost Dynasty, which was also released under the titles Suiko Enbu and Dark Legend; Shin Megami Tensei: Imagine. There is also a beat em' up game Shuǐhǔ Fēngyún Chuán (), created by Never Ending Soft Team and published by Kin Tec in 1996. It was re-released for the Mega Drive and in arcade version by Wah Lap in 1999. An English version titled "Water Margin: The Tales of Clouds and Winds" by Piko Interactive translated and released in 2015. Some enemy sprites are taken from other beat 'em ups and modified, including Knights of the Round, Golden Axe and Streets of Rage.

In the 8th canto of the 2023 video game Limbus Company, there is a faction known as "The Pinky", based on the 108 heroes.

Music

Yan Poxi, a Pingju form of the story focused on the concubine Yan Poxi, was performed by Bai Yushuang and her company in Shanghai in the 1930s.

Water Marginised () (2007) is a folk reggae narrative by Chan Xuan. It tells the story of a present-day jailbird who travels to Liangshan Marsh in hope of joining the outlaw band, only to find that Song Jiang and his men have all taken bureaucratic jobs in the ruling party.

"108 Heroes" is a three-part Peking Rock Opera (first shown in 2007, 2011 and 2014 respectively) formed through a collaborative effort between the Hong Kong Arts Festival, the Shanghai International Arts Festival, Taiwan Contemporary Legend Theater, and the Shanghai Theater Academy. The show combines traditional Peking Opera singing, costumes, martial arts and dance with elements of modern music, costume and dance.

Other

In Chinese, the name "Li Gui" – from the character who impersonates the notorious Li Kui to rob people – is used as a synonym for fake products.

The temple fair in Southern Taiwan Song Jiang Battle Array is based on the acrobatic fighting from Water Margin.

Characters from the story often appear on Money-suited playing cards, which are thought to be the ancestor of both modern playing cards and mahjong tiles. These cards are also known as Water Margin cards ().

The trading card game Yu-Gi-Oh! has an archetype based on the 108 heroes known as the "Fire Fist" (known as "Flame Star" in the OCG) (, Ensei) where the monsters aside from Horse Prince, Lion Emperor, and Spirit are based on those heroes.

Appendix

Notes

References

Bibliography

reprinted at China Heritage Quarterly. Written by Jin, but attributed to Shi Nai'an.
Dent-Young, John. "Translating Chinese Fiction: The Shui Hu Zhuan," in Sin-Wai Chan and David Pollard, An Encyclopedia of Translation: Chinese-English, English-Chinese (Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1995), 249–261 [https://books.google.com/books?id=4fWf1WlCStcC&dq=Shuihuzhuan&pg=PA249].
Available Free Download Open Access.
Hsia, C.T., "The Water Margin," in C.T. Hsia, The Classic Chinese Novel: A Critical Introduction (1968; rpr. Cornell University Press, 1996), pp. 75–114.
, esp. pp. 626–332.

External links

Outlaws of the Marsh: Chinese text with embedded Chinese-English dictionary