The term wali is most commonly used by Muslims to refer to a saint, or literally a "friend of God".
In the traditional Islamic understanding, a saint is portrayed as someone "marked by [special] divine favor ... [and] holiness", and who is specifically "chosen by God and endowed with exceptional gifts, such as the ability to work miracles". The doctrine of saints was articulated by Muslim scholars very early on in Islamic history, and particular verses of the Quran and certain hadith were interpreted by early Muslim thinkers as "documentary evidence" In the common expressions of Islamic piety of this period, the saint was understood to be "a contemplative whose state of spiritual perfection ... [found] permanent expression in the teaching bequeathed to his disciples".
Aside from the Sufis, the preeminent saints in traditional Islamic piety are the Companions of the Prophet, their Successors, and the Successors of the Successors. Additionally, the prophets and messengers in Islam are also believed to be saints by definition, although they are rarely referred to as such, in order to prevent confusion between them and ordinary saints; as the prophets are exalted by Muslims as the greatest of all humanity, it is a general tenet of Sunni belief that a single prophet is greater than all the regular saints put together. In short, it is believed that "every prophet is a saint, but not every saint is a prophet".
In the modern world, traditional Sunni and Shia ideas of saints has been challenged by fundamentalist and revivalist Islamic movements such as the Salafi movement, Wahhabism, and Islamic Modernism, all three of which have, to a greater or lesser degree, "formed a front against the veneration and theory of saints". However, despite the presence of these opposing streams of thought, the classical doctrine of saint veneration continues to thrive in many parts of the Islamic world today, playing a vital role in daily expressions of piety among vast segments of Muslim populations in Muslim countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Turkey, Senegal, Iraq, Iran, Algeria, Tunisia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Morocco, In Persian, which became the second most influential and widely spoken language in the Islamic world after Arabic,). Some modern scholars, however, assert that the Quran does not explicitly outline a doctrine or theory of saints. only lent further credence to this early understanding of saints.
In the late ninth-century, important thinkers in Sunni Islam officially articulated the previously-oral doctrine of an entire hierarchy of saints, with the first written account of this hierarchy coming from the pen of al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi (d. 907-912). It is, in fact, reported that Ibn Hanbal explicitly identified his contemporary, the mystic Maruf Karkhi (d. 815-20), as one of the abdal, saying: "He is one of the substitute-saints, and his supplication is answered."
thumb|upright|left|A [[Mughal miniature of A Discourse between Muslim Sages (ca. 1630), thought to be executed by the court painter Govārdhan.]]
From the twelfth to the fourteenth century, "the general veneration of saints, among both people and sovereigns, reached its definitive form with the organization of Sufism—the mysticism of Islam—into orders or brotherhoods." In the words of one contemporary academic, practically all Muslims of that era believed that "the lives of saints and their miracles were incontestable."
In the modern world, the traditional idea of saints in Islam has been challenged by the puritanical and revivalist Islamic movements of Salafism and Wahhabism, whose influence has "formed a front against the veneration and theory of saints." Despite the presence, however, of these opposing streams of thought, the classical doctrine of saint-veneration continues to thrive in many parts of the Islamic world today, playing a vital part in the daily piety of vast portions of Muslim countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Turkey, Senegal, Iraq, Iran, Algeria, Tunisia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Morocco, Elsewhere, the same author quoted an older tradition in order to convey his understanding of the purpose of saints, which states: "The saints of God are those who, when they are seen, God is remembered."
Meanwhile, al-Hakim al-Tirmidhi (d. 869), the most significant ninth-century expositor of the doctrine, posited six common attributes of true saints (not necessarily applicable to all, according to the author, but nevertheless indicative of a significant portion of them), which are: (1) when people see him, they are automatically reminded of God; (2) anyone who advances towards him in a hostile way is destroyed; (3) he possesses the gift of clairvoyance (firāsa); (4) he receives divine inspiration (ilhām), to be strictly distinguished from revelation proper (waḥy), with the latter being something only the prophets receive; (5) he can work miracles (karāmāt) by the leave of God, which may differ from saint to saint, but may include marvels such as walking on water (al-mas̲h̲y ʿalā 'l-māʾ) and shortening space and time (ṭayy al-arḍ); and (6) he associates with Khidr.
Classical testimonies
The doctrine of saints, and of their miracles, seems to have been taken for granted by many of the major authors of the Islamic Golden Age (ca. 700–1400),
- "The miracles of saints are absolutely true and correct, and acknowledged by all Muslim scholars. The Qur'an has pointed to it in different places, and the Hadith of the Prophet have mentioned it, and whoever denies the miraculous power of saints are innovators or following innovators" (Ibn Taymiyya [d. 1328], Mukhtasar al-Fatawa al-Masriyya; Sunni Hanbali theologian and jurisconsult)
Seeking of blessings
The rationale for veneration of deceased saints by pilgrims in an appeal for blessings (Barakah) even though the saints will not rise from the dead until the Day of Resurrection (Yawm ad-Dīn) may come from the hadith that states "the Prophets are alive in their graves and they pray". (According to the Islamic concept of Punishment of the Grave—established by hadith—the dead are still conscious and active, with the wicked suffering in their graves as a prelude to hell and the pious at ease.) According to Islamic historian Jonathan A.C. Brown, "saints are thought to be no different" than prophets, "as able in death to answer invocations for assistance" as they were while alive.
Types and hierarchy
thumb|upright|left|A drawing of The Two Poet Saints [[Hafez and Saadi Shirazi (ca. 17th century), thought to be executed by Muhammad Qāsim]]
Saints were envisaged to be of different "types" in classical Islamic tradition.
In certain esoteric teachings of Islam, there is said to be a cosmic spiritual hierarchy whose ranks include walis (saints, friends of God), abdals (changed ones), headed by a ghawth (helper) or qutb (pole, axis). The details vary according to the source.
One source is the 12th Century Persian Ali Hujwiri. In his divine court, there are three hundred akhyār ("excellent ones"), forty abdāl ("substitutes"), seven abrār ("piously devoted ones"), four awtād ("pillars"), three nuqabā ("leaders") and one qutb.
<blockquote>All these saints know one another and cannot act without mutual consent. It is the task of the Awtad to go round the whole world every night, and if there should be any place on which their eyes have not fallen, next day some flaw will appear in that place, and they must then inform the Qutb in order that he may direct his attention to the weak spot and that by his blessings the imperfection may be remedied.</blockquote>
Another is from Ibn Arabi, who lived in Moorish Spain. It has a more exclusive structure. There are eight nujabā ("nobles"), twelve nuqabā, seven abdāl, four awtād, two a'immah ("guides"), and the qutb.
According to the 20th-century Sufi Inayat Khan, there are seven degrees in the hierarchy. In ascending order, they are pir, buzurg, wali, ghaus, qutb, nabi and rasul He does not say how the levels are populated. Pirs and buzurgs assist the spiritual progress of those who approach them. Walis may take responsibility for protecting a community and generally work in secret. Qutbs are similarly responsible for large regions. Nabis are charged with bringing a reforming message to nations or faiths, and hence have a public role. Rasuls likewise have a mission of transformation of the world at large.
Regional veneration
The amount of veneration a specific saint received varied from region to region in Islamic civilization, often on the basis of the saint's own history in that region. As has been noted by scholars, however, "the phenomenon may well be older," Another immensely popular saint of the time-period was Ibn Ḥirzihim (d. 1163), who also gained renown for his personal devoutness and his ability to work miracles.
One of Abū Madyan's most notable disciples was ʿAbd al-Salām Ibn Mas̲h̲īs̲h̲ (d. 1127), with the latter three originating Sufi orders of their own.
- (3) the "warrior saint" (pl. murābiṭūn) or martyr; With regard to the sheer omnipresence of this belief, the late Martin Lings wrote: "There is scarcely a region in the empire of Islam which has not a Sufi for its Patron Saint." As the veneration accorded saints often develops purely organically in Islamic climates, the Awliya Allah are often recognized through popular acclaim rather than through official declaration.
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|ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-T̲h̲aʿālibī ||d. c. 1200|| Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Algiers
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|Shah Jalal ||d. 1347 ||Sufi saint and mystic of the Suhrawardiyya order, born in modern-day Turkey he travelled to the Indian subcontinent and settled in the North-East Bengal and Assam spreading Islam across the area and became the main guide to the new Muslim population of Eastern Bengal.
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|Khan Jahan Ali ||d. 1459 ||Born in modern Uzbekistan, he travelled to southern Bengal to spread Islam; he built the mosque city of Bagerhat and cleared the Sunderbans for human settlement. He developed southern Bengal by linking Bagerghat to the trade city of Chittagong and Sonargaon and introduced Islamic education there. ||
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|Akhi Siraj Aainae Hind ||d. 14 century ||Sufi saint (born in Gaur, West Bengal) of the Chishti order, he spread Islam across Northern Bengal and Western Bihar, he was also the administrator of Northern Bengal under the Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah developing the area. His dargah in Malda is one of the largest in South Asia and gathers thousands a year.||
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|rowspan="3"|
|Abu'l-Ḥasan al-S̲h̲ād̲h̲ilī ||d. 1258 ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence and founder of the Shadiliyya tariqa || Many parts of Upper Egypt, but particularly among the ʿAbābda tribe
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|Abū l-Ḥajjāj of Luxor ||d. 1244 ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Luxor
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|ʿAbd al-Raḥīm of Qena ||d. 1196 ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence, and famous defender of orthodoxy in the area ||City of Qena
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|rowspan="2"|
|Abū Barakāt Yūsuf Al-Kawnayn Al-Barbari ||d. c. 1200 ||Sunni saint and scholar of Shafi'i jurisprudence. He is considered the forefather of the Walashma Dynasty. ||Travelled a lot from Harar, Zeila, Baghdad, Dhogor and even Maldives, where he spread Islam.
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|Ash-Shaykh Diyā Ud-Dīn Ishāq Ibn Ahmad Ar-Ridhāwi Al-Maytī ||d. c. 1300 ||Sunni scholar and traveler of Husaynid lineage. He is the eponymous ancestor of the isaaq clan-family. ||Travelled from Hijāz, to Yaman, Bilād Al-Habasha and finally the city of Maydh.
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|Niẓām al-Dīn Awliyā ||d. 1325 ||Sunni mystic of Hanafi jurisprudence ||City of Delhi
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|S̲h̲āh al-Ḥamīd ʿAbd al-Ḳādir ||ob. 1600 ||Sunni mystic of Shafi'i jurisprudence ||Town of Nagore
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|Chishtī Muʿīn al-Dīn Ḥasan Sijzī || ||Mystic of Chishti order ||City of Ajmer
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|Mu'in al-Din Hadi Naqshband Mirza || ||Mystic of Naqshbandi order and son in law of Emperor Jahangir; Buried alongside 3 generations of his successors in the Ziyarat Naqshband Memorial Complex||City of Srinagar
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|Bābā Nūr al-Dīn Ris̲h̲ī ||d. 1377 ||Sunni ascetic and mystic ||Town of Bijbehara
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|Daniel ||d. 600 BCE ||Hebrew prophet who is venerated in Islamic tradition ||City of Shush, where the most popular shrine devoted to him is located
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|rowspan="2"|
|Husayn ibn Ali ||d. 680 ||grandson of Muhammad and Third imam for Shia Muslims ||All Iraq for both Shia and Sunni Muslims, but especially the city of Karbala
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|ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī ||d. 1166 ||Sunni mystic and jurist of Hanbali jurisprudence and founder of the Qadiriyya tariqa ||All Iraq in classical Sunni piety, but especially the city of Baghdad
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|Aḥmad Yesewī ||d. 1166 ||Sunni mystic of Hanafi jurisprudence and founder of the Yesewīyya tariqa ||All of Kazakhstan; additionally, venerated as the Wali of all the modern nation states comprising the pre-modern Turkestan
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|rowspan="10"|
|Abū S̲h̲uʿayb Ayyūb b. Saʿīd al-Ṣinhāj̲ī (in the vernacular "Mūlāy Būs̲h̲ʿīb") ||d. c. 1100 ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Azemmour
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|Ḥmād u-Mūsā ||d. 1563 ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence and the Shadiliyya tariqa ||Region of Sous
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|Aḥmad b. Jaʿfar al-Ḵh̲azrajī Abu 'l-ʿAbbās al-Sabtī ||d. 1205 ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Marrakesh
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|Sidi Belliūt ||d. c. 1500 [?] ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Casablanca
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|Ibn ʿĀs̲h̲ir ||d. 1362–63 ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Salé
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|Abū Muḥammad Ṣāliḥ |d. 1500 [?] ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Safi
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|Mūlāy ʿAlī Bū G̲h̲ālem ||d. 1200 [?] ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||Town of Alcazarquivir
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|Idris I of Morocco ||d. 791 ||First Islamic ruler and founder of the Idrisid dynasty ||City of Fez
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|ʿAbd al-Ḳādir Muḥammad ||d. c. 1500 [?] ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||Town of Figuig
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|Muḥammad b. ʿĪsā ||d. 16th century ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Meknes
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| rowspan="2" |
|Muhammad ibn al-Sabbagh (in Hausa Dan Marina)
|fl. 1640
|Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence
|City of Katsina
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|Dan Masanih
|1595 – 1667
|Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence
|City of Katsina
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|rowspan="10"|
|ʿAbd Allāh S̲h̲āh G̲h̲āzī ||d. c. 800 ||Early Muslim mystic and preacher ||City of Karachi
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|Abu 'l-Ḥasan Ali Huj̲wīrī ||d. 1072–1077 ||Sunni mystic of Hanafi jurisprudence; often referred to as Dātā Ganj̲bak̲h̲s̲h̲ by Pakistanis ||City of Lahore
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|ʿAbd Allāh S̲h̲āh Qādri ||d. 1757 ||Muslim Sufi poet and philosopher of Qadiriyya tariqa ||City of Kasur
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|Bahāʾ al-Dīn Zakarīyā ||d. 1170 ||Sunni mystic of Hanafi jurisprudence and the Suhrawardiyya tariqa ||Vast areas of south-west Punjab and Sindh
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|Lāl Shāhbāz Q̣alandar ||d. 1275 ||Sunni mystic of Hanafi jurisprudence ||City of Sehwan Sharif
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|Bilāwal S̲h̲āh Nūraniʾ ||d. ? ||Sufi mystic buried in Lahoot Lamakan ||City of Khuzdar
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|HH The Hazrat Ishaan ||d. 1642 ||Aristocrat and Patron Saint of the Mughal Emperors and Shaybanid Khans of Bukhara buried alongside his successor Khwaja Khawand Ahmad Hazrat Ishaan III, Khwaja Bahauddin Thani Hazrat Ishaan IV, Sayyid Mir Jan Hazrat Ishaan VIII and Mir Mahmud Agha Hazrat Ishaan IX in Begampura ||City of Lahore
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|Sheikh Rahamkar ||d. 1653 ||Sunni mystic and pir ||City of Nowshera
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|S̲h̲āh Qabūl ʾAwliyāʾ ||d. 1767 ||Sunni mystic and pir ||City of Peshawar
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|Jalālʾ al-Dīn Surk͟h Poṣ ||d. 1295 ||Sufi saint and missionary ||City of Uch Sharif
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|Arslān of Damascus ||d. 1160–1164 ||Sunni mystic ||City of Damascus
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|rowspan="4"|
|Muḥriz b. K̲h̲alaf ||d. 1022 ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Tunis
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|Sīdī al-Māzarī ||d. 1300 [?] ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Monastir
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|ʿAbd Allāh Abu 'l-Jimāl ||d. 1500 [?] ||Sunni mystic of Maliki jurisprudence ||City of Khroumire
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||Boulbaba ||d. 7th century ||According to tradition, a companion of Muhammad ||City of Gabès
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|rowspan="4"|
|Ḥājjī Bayrām Walī ||d. 1429–30 ||Sunni mystic of Hanafi jurisprudence ||City of Ankara
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|Emīr Sulṭān ||d. 1455 ||Sunni mystic of Hanafi jurisprudence ||City of Bursa
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|Miskin Baba ||d. 1858–59 ||Sunni mystic of Hanafi jurisprudence ||Island of Ada Kaleh, which was at one time under the control of the Ottoman Empire; island was submerged in 1970 during the construction of the Iron Gate I Hydroelectric Power Station
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|Jalāl ad-Dīn Mohammad Rūmī ||d. 1273 ||Hanafi mystic of Maturidi creed ||City of Konya
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|rowspan="2"|
|Qutham b. ʿAbbās ||d. 676 ||Early Muslim martyr ||City of Samarkand
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|Zangī Ātā ||d. 1269 ||Sunni mystic of Hanafi jurisprudence ||City of Tashkent
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|rowspan="4"|
|Muḥammad b. ʿAlī Bā ʿAlāwī ||d. 1255 ||Sunni mystic of Shafi'i jurisprudence and founder of the ʿAlāwiyya tariqa in Hadhramaut ||Region of Hadhramaut
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|S̲h̲aik̲h̲ Ṣadīq ||d. 1500 [?] ||Sunni mystic ||City of Al Hudaydah
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|ʿAlī b. ʿUmar al-S̲h̲ād̲h̲ilī ||d. 1400 [?] ||Sunni mystic of the Shadiliyya tariqa ||Port-city of Mokha
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|Abū Bakr al-ʿAydarūs ||d. 1508 ||Sunni mystic of Shafi'i jurisprudence ||City of Aden
|}
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Further reading
Primary
- Ibn Abi 'l-Dunyā, K. al-Awliyāʾ, in Mad̲j̲mūʿat rasāʾil, Cairo 1354/1935
- Abū Nuʿaym al-Iṣbahānī, Ḥilyat al-awliyāʾ, Cairo 1351 ff./1932 ff.
- Abū Saʿīd al-K̲h̲arrāz, K. al-Kas̲h̲f wa 'l-bayān, ed. Ḳ. al-Sāmarrāʾī, Bag̲h̲dād 1967
- al-Ḥakīm al-Tirmid̲h̲ī, K. K̲h̲atm al-awliyāʾ, ed. O. Yaḥyā, Beirut 1965
- idem, K. Sīrat al-awliyāʾ, ed. B. Radtke, in Drei Schrijten, i, 1-134, Beirut 1992
- idem, al-Farḳ bayn al-āyāt wa 'l-karāmāt, ms. Ankara, Ismail Saib i, 1571, fols. 152b-177b
- idem, Badʾ s̲h̲aʾn Abī ʿAbd Allāh, ed. Yaḥyā, in Tirmid̲h̲ī, K̲h̲atm, 14-32, facs. and German tr. in Radtke, Tirmid̲iana minora, 244-77, Eng. tr. in Radtke and O'Kane, Concept of sainthood, 15-36. Handbooks.
- Bādisī, "al-Maḳṣad", tr. G. Colin, in Archives marocaines, xxvi-xxvii (1926)
- G̲h̲ubrīnī, ʿUnwān al-dirāya, Algiers 1970
- Hud̲j̲wīrī, Kas̲h̲f al-maḥd̲j̲ūb, ed. V. Zhukovsky, repr. Tehran 1336/1958, 265 ff., tr. Nicholson, The Kashf al-mahjūb. The oldest Persian treatise on Sufism, Leiden-London 1911, 210-41
- Kalābād̲h̲ī, al-Taʿarruf li-mad̲h̲hab ahl al-taṣawwuf ed. Arberry, Cairo 1934, tr. idem, The doctrine of the Sufis, 2, Cambridge 1977, ch. 26
- Sarrād̲j̲, K. al-Lumaʿ fi 'l-taṣawwuf, ed. Nicholson, Leiden-London 1914, 315-32, Ger. tr. R. Gramlich, Schlaglichter über das Sufitum, Stuttgart 1990, 449-68
- Abū Ṭālib al-Makkī, Ḳūt al-ḳulūb, Cairo 1932, Ger. tr. Gramlich, Die Nährung der Herzen, Wiesbaden 1992–95, index, s.v. Gottesfreund
- Ḳus̲h̲ayrī, Risāla, many eds., Ger. tr. Gramlich, Das Sendschreiben al-Qušayrīs, Wiesbaden 1989, index, s.v. Gottesfreund
- ʿAmmār al-Bidlīsī, Zwei mystische Schriften, ed. E. Badeen, forthcoming Beirut
- Ibn al-ʿArabī, al-Futūḥāt al-makkiyya, Cairo 1329–1911.
- idem, Rūḥ al-ḳuds, Damascus 1964, Eng. tr. R.W. Austin, The Sufis of Andalusia, London 1971, Fr. tr. G. Leconte, Les Soufies d'Andalousie, Paris 1995
- F. Meier, Die Vita des Scheich Abū Isḥāq al-Kāzarūnī, Leipzig 1948
- Muḥammad b. Munawwar, Asrār al-tawḥīd fī maḳāmāt al-S̲h̲ayk̲h̲ Abī Saʿīd, ed. Muḥammad S̲h̲afīʿī-i Kadkanī, Tehran 1366-7, Eng. tr. J. O'Kane, The secrets of God's mystical oneness, New York 1992
- ʿAzīz al-Dīn Nasafī, K. al-Insān al-kāmil, ed. M. Mole, Tehran-Paris 1962, 313-25
- Ibn Taymiyya, al-Furḳān bayna awliyāʾ al-Raḥmān wa-awliyāʾ al-S̲h̲ayṭān, Cairo 1366/1947
- idem, Ḥaḳīḳat mad̲h̲hab al-ittiḥādiyyīn, in Mad̲j̲mūʿat al-Rasāʾil wa 'l-masāʾil, iv, Cairo n.d., 1 ff.
- Ibn ʿAṭāʾ Allāh, Laṭāʾif al-minan, Fr. tr. E. Geoffroy, La sagesse des maîtres soufis, Paris 1998
Secondary
- Henri Corbin, En Islam iranien, esp. iii, Paris 1972
- Michel Chodkiewicz, Le sceau des saints, Paris 1986
- Jahrhundert Hidschra. Eine Geschichte des religiösen Denkens im frühen Islam, i-vi, Berlin-New York 1991-7
- B. Radtke and J. O'Kane, The concept of sainthood in early Islamic mysticism, London 1996
- Radtke, Drei Schriften des Theosophen von Tirmid̲, i, Beirut-Stuttgart 1992, ii, Beirut-Stuttgart 1996
- R. Mach, Der Zaddik in Talmud und Midrasch, Leiden 1957
- Radtke, "Tirmid̲iana minora", in Oriens, xxxiv (1994), 242-98
- Gramlich, Die Wunder der Freunde Gottes, Wiesbaden 1987
- idem, Die schiitischen Derwischorden Persiens, Wiesbaden 1965–81, ii, 160-5 (on the hierarchy of saints)
- C. Ernst, Ruzbihan Baqli, London 1996
- Radtke, "Zwischen Traditionalisms und Intellektualismus. Geistesgeschichtliche und historiografische Bemerkungen zum Ibrīz des Aḥmad b. al-Mubārak al-Lamaṭī", in Built on solid rock. Festschrift für Ebbe Knudsen, Oslo 1997, 240-67
- H.S. Nyberg, Kleinere Schriften des Ibn al-ʿArabī, Leiden 1919, 103-20
- A. Afifi, The mystical philosophy of Muhyid-din Ibnul-ʿArabi, Cambridge 1939
- W. Chittick, The Sufi path of knowledge, Albany 1989
- Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, The Tijaniyya. A Sufi order in the modern world, London 1965
- Radtke, "Lehrer-Schüler-Enkel. Aḥmad b. Idrīs, Muḥammad ʿUt̲mān al-Mīrġanī, Ismāʿīl al-Walī", in Oriens, xxxiii (1992), 94-132
- I. Goldziher, "Die Heiligenverehrung im Islam", in Muh. Stud., ii, 275-378
- Grace Martin Smith and C.W. Ernst (eds.), Manifestations of sainthood in Islam, Istanbul 1993
- H.-Ch. Loir et Cl. Gilliot (eds.), Le culte des saints dans le monde musulman, Paris 1995.
External links
- Martin Lings, "Proofs of Islam," transcript of lecture delivered at the Islamic Cultural Centre, later published in Ilm Magazine, Volume 10, Number 1, December 1985, pp. 3-8