Veracruz, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave, is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. Located in eastern Mexico, Veracruz is bordered by seven states: Tamaulipas, San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo, Puebla, Oaxaca, Chiapas, and Tabasco. Veracruz is divided into 212 municipalities, and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez.
Veracruz has a significant share of the coastline of the Gulf of Mexico on the east of the state.<!-- measurement? --> The state is noted for its mixed ethnic and indigenous populations, and its cuisine reflects the many cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz. In addition to the capital city, the state's largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río and Orizaba.
Etymology
The official name of the state is Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave. It is named after its largest city and main port, Veracruz, which was originally founded as Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz (Rich Town of the True Cross) by Spanish conquistadors in 1519. The name "Vera Cruz" combines Latin and Spanish elements meaning "True Cross". The suffix is in honor of Ignacio de la Llave y Segura Zevallos (1818–1863), who was the governor of Veracruz from 1855 to 1857, and once again from 1861 to 1863. is based on the colonial coat of arms granted by King Charles I of Spain to Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz in 1523, which recognized Veracruz as the first Spanish settlement in New Spain.
The first major civilization in the territory of the current state was the Olmecs, centered in the Coatzacoalcos River region. Its principal ceremonial site was San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, with other important centers including Tres Zapotes in the city of Veracruz and La Venta in Tabasco. Olmec civilization reached its peak about 2,600 years ago, producing colossal stone heads that remain its most recognizable artistic achievement. These ceremonial sites were among the most complex of their era, leading many anthropologists to regard the Olmecs as the "mother culture" of Mesoamerican civilizations. Nevertheless, historian John Schmal notes that by 300 BCE, the Olmecs had been "eclipsed by other emerging civilizations in Mesoamerica".
Among the first groups encountered by the Spanish in the Americas were the Totonacs.
During the colonial era, Veracruz was the main port of entry for immigrants from Spain, enslaved Africans, and luxury goods for import and export. The first group of Franciscans arrived in Veracruz in 1524, walking barefoot to the capital of the Spanish colony of New Spain. The route between Veracruz and the Spanish capital of Mexico City, built on the site of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, was the key trade route during the colonial era. Much of the history of the state is involved with the port city that Cortés founded in 1519. Veracruz became the principal and often only port to export and import goods between the colony of New Spain and Spain itself. and the fortification of the city overall. decimated the native population of the province, prompting the importation of enslaved Africans during the colonial period, starting in the 16th century. The Spanish imported between 500,000 and 1,000,000 West African slaves into Mexico between 1535 and 1767. As New Spain did not have any laws prohibiting interracial marriage, miscegenation between indigenous and African populations began almost immediately. People of this mixed heritage are called Afro-Mestizo, which includes all 3 ethnicities: Indigenous, African, and Spanish.
Runaway slaves (cimarrones) became problematic to public order since they frequently formed robber bands that attacked travelers on highways. The Spanish Crown took action against these groups beginning in the late sixteenth century, but a major rebellion broke out in 1606 in the Villa Rica, Nueva Veracruz, Antón Lizardo, and Rio Blanco areas. The most consequential rebellion occurred in the Orizaba area and involved about 500 fugitive slaves. In 1609, Gaspar Yanga, a fugitive slave, led an insurrection against the Spanish. Unrest continued until 1618, when the Spanish government eventually signed an amnesty pact which gave the Africans the right to form their own community in exchange for suppressing bandit activity. The town of San Lorenzo de Zerral established, and was later renamed the municipality of Yanga. Yanga's rebellion marked the first time slavery was abolished in the Americas. Then, in November, the port was also occupied by British and French forces. The Spanish and the British withdrew after making deals with Juárez, but the French pushed on to establish the reign of Maximilian I of Mexico. However, this was short-lived and the French were expelled through Veracruz in 1866/67. Multiple mass graves have been found within the state. This is seen as part of the over 28,000 missing individuals related to the Mexican drug war. Within the state the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas have battled for control. Additionally, this has led to journalists being targeted and killed within the state.
Geography
Political geography
The state is a crescent-shaped strip of land wedged between the Sierra Madre Oriental to the west and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Its total area is , accounting for about 3.7% of Mexico's total territory. It stretches about north to south, but its width varies from between , with an average of about in width. Veracruz borders Tamaulipas to the north; Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south; Tabasco to the southeast; and Hidalgo, Puebla, and San Luis Potosí to the west. Its coastline along the Gulf of Mexico extends for .
Natural geography
thumb|[[Pico de Orizaba|Citlaltépetl, the highest mountain in Mexico at 5,636 m.]]
left|thumb|View of the [[Jamapa River.]]
The natural geography can be categorized into nine regions: The Sierra de Zongolica, the Tecolutla Region, the Huayacocotla Region, the Metlac River area, the Tuxtlas Region, the Central Region, the Laguna del Castillo Region, the Pueblo Viejo-Tamiahua Region and the Laguna de Alvarado Region.
The state also has ten major waterfalls and ten major coastal lagoons. There is only one significant lake, called Lake Catemaco. Off the coast are the islands of Isla de Lobos, Isla de los Burros, Isla de Sacrificios, Isla de Salmendina, Isla del Idolo, Isladel Toro, Isla Frijoles, Isla Juan A Ramirez, Isla Pajaros and Isla Terrón and the ocean reefs called Blanquilla, Medio, Tangüillo, Tuxpan, Gualleguilla, Gallega, Anegada de Adento Anegada de Afuera and Cabezo.
Climate
thumb|Mountain formation in the south of the state
The large variation of altitude results in a wide mixture of climates, ranging from cold, snow-topped mountain peaks to hot, humid tropical areas on the coast.
The northern part of the state and higher mountain areas are convergence zones between lowland evergreen tropical forests and more temperate flora and fauna. It is also the northernmost occurrence of subhumid tropical forest in Mexico, although little of this remains, mostly on steep slopes. The tropical forests of the Veracruz moist forests ecoregion are situated in the northeastern coastal plain and extend into southern Tamaulipas state, on the east side of the Sierra Madre Oriental. The soils here are volcanic and shallow, but with rich organic matter. Species that predominate include Mayan breadnut (Brosimum alicastrum), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), rosadillo (Celtis monoica), Bursera simaruba, Dendropanax arboreus, and Sideroxylon capiri. This ecoregion extends into the central part of the state, with vegetation changing to include mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), sapodilla (Manilkara zapota), Bernoullia flammea, and Astronium graveolens.
There is about 1 million hectares of cultivable land, half of which is privately owned and 43% is ejido or communal land; the rest is occupied by human settlements. There are 3,620 ejidos parceled out to 270,000 ejido members. 52.5% of agricultural land is used for the growing of crops or used as pasture and 43.1% is forest or rainforest. Chief agricultural products include coffee, vanilla, sugarcane, tobacco, bananas, coconuts, and vegetables, but local farmers depend mainly on corn and beans.]]
The "Golden Lane" ("Dos Bocas-Alamo structure" or The Ridge") refers to a series of oil fields aligned in an arc onshore and a symmetrical alignment offshore, forming two sides of a Cretaceous atoll 180 km long. The structure was discovered in 1908 by Weetman Pearson's Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company San diego de la Mar No. 1 well, which flowed 2,500 barrels per day. The selection of the discovery well site was opportune due to presence of petroleum seeps, just as was Edward Laurence Doheny's La Paz No. well in the Ebano-Panuco petroleum district west of Tampico, Tamaulipas, which was the first Mexican discovery well in 1904. In 1908, the infamous Dos Bocas oil fire occurred after the San Diego de la Mar No. 3 blowout. This was followed by the Potrero del Llano No. 4 well, which flowed 100,000 barrels per day during the three months that it was out of control. Refraction seismography surveys started in 1930, augemented in 1948 with reflection seismography, which led to the discovery of the southern extent of the atoll with the Ezequiel Ordonez No. 1 well in 1952 and additional discoveries through 1968. Marine seismic and magnetometer surveys starting in 1957 showed the extent of the atoll offshore and led to the first offshore well, Isla de Lobos No. 1-B, in 1963.
Industry, transportation and commerce
thumb|A portion of the port of Veracruz
Laguna Verde Nuclear Power Plant (LVNPP) in Alto Lucero, Veracruz, produces about 4.5% of Mexico's electrical energy.
21% to 33% of Veracruz's gross domestic product (GDP) is derrived from manufacturing, with the chemical and petrochemical sectors contributing about 64% of the manufacturing GDP.
Handcrafts
In the more rural and indigenous areas of the state, a number of handicrafts are still made and sold both to local buyers and to tourists. Many of these crafts are produced by communities that specialize in one or more types. Wood furniture and other items are made by the Huasteca people, mostly using cedar and palm trees. The best work comes from the towns of Ozulama and Castillo de Teayo. Teocelo and Monte Blanco are known for bamboo furniture and other items. Musical instruments of wood such as a guitar called "jarana" are constructed in the Los Tuxtlas area, especially in Catemaco, with flutes made in Papantla. Wooden masks are made in Teocelo, and items made with the wood of coffee plants are made in Misantla, Coatepec, Huastusco and Xico. Corn husks are used to make decorative figures, often religious, in Nautla and Naranjos de Amatlán. Palm fronds are woven into fans, shoes and baskets in Jalcomulco, Ozulama and Tlalixcoyan.
Ceramics have been made in almost all parts of Veracruz since the Olmecs. One area known for its work is Papantla which also includes life sized representations of folk dancers from the area along with more mundane items of glazed and unglazed pottery. Minatitlán is known for its production of ceramic cooking utensils which are also popular in the neighboring municipalities of Actopan and Naolinco. San Miguel Aguasuelos and Jalcomulco are known for their white clay wares which include water jars, toys, nativity scenes, bells and more. From the pre-Hispanic period, the cuisine of the state was unique. The staple triumvirate of corn, beans, and squash was supplemented by tropical fruits, vanilla beans, and an herb called acuyo or hoja santa. Another important native contribution is seafood, which is featured in many dishes such as, arroz a la tumbada and caldo de mariscos (seafood soup). Day of the Dead is celebrated in almost all of Mexico from October 31 to November 2 but there are local twists in the state. In some places, it is commemorated during the months of August and September. In Papantla, boards or tables are placed on rooftops, which have been adorned with flowers, plant matter and more. In Tantoyuca, it is commemorated with costumes and music, similar to Carnival.
However, the state's most famous dance is as much a ritual and daredevil act as movements performed to music. The Danza de los Voladores (Dance of the Flyers) is a ceremony/ritual which has its roots in the pre-Hispanic period and presently best known as associated with the town of Papantla, Veracruz. It is believed to have originated with the Nahuas, Huastec and Otomi in central Mexico, and then spread throughout most of Mesoamerica. The ritual consists of dance and the climbing of a 30-meter pole from which four of the five participants then launch themselves tied with ropes to descend to the ground. The fifth remains on top of the pole, dancing and playing a flute and drum. According to myth, the ritual was created to ask the gods to end a severe drought. Although the ritual did not originate with the Totonac people, today it is most strongly associated with them, especially those in and around Papantla, as the ceremony has died off in most other places. The ceremony was named an Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in order to help the ritual survive and thrive in the modern world.
The state's best-known musical style is called the "son". A "son" is a musical variation which traces its origins to Spain and developed during the 17th and 18th centuries. It is the state's most popular musical style shows influences from the many peoples who have lived here such as indigenous groups, Portuguese, Italians, Africans, French and others. The music is generally performed by harps, violins and guitars, with an occasional wind instrument. Son huasteco (also called son huapango) is a variety of son played in the north of the state mostly among the Totonacs. Son jarocho is the better known and more popular variety played in the south of the state. The famous Grammy award-winning song "La Bamba" by Los Lobos is said have its roots in a traditional folk song from Veracruz (hence the reference to the "Marinero" in that song).
The state has produced a number of musicians famous in the country. One of the best known is Francisco Gabilondo Soler. Gabilondo Soler is best known for creating a character known as "Cri-cri", a singing cricket for a radio show in the first half of the 20th century. As a musician, he specialized in writing children's songs such as "Abuelito", "Caminito de la escuela", "El baile de los muñecos", "El burrito" and "La negrita Cucurumbé". A number of his works have been translated into other languages. Another famous musician is Agustín Lara, who has had more international fame. Nicknamed "Flaco de oro" (golden skinny one), he always insisted that he was born in Tlacotalpan, Veracruz and not Mexico City as records show. Lara formed his first band in 1930 called El Son de Marabú and toured almost continuously in Mexico and abroad during his career. His most famous compositions include "Veracruz", "Noche de Ronda" and "Solamente una vez".
However, most of Veracruz's best-known artists are from the 19th and 20th centuries. In the 19th century, these include Miguel Mata Reyes, Salvador Ferrando, José María Jara, Enrique Guerra and Alberto Fuster. Miguel Mata Reyes is best known for his contributions to the design of the Palacio de Bellas Artes as well a portrait of Antonio López de Santa Anna. Salvador Ferrando was a portrait and landscape artist from the north of the state. Until recently, most of his work had been hidden in a museum named after him in the Tlacotalpan region. Much of it now is on display at the Museo de Arte de Veracruz in Orizaba. José María Jara is noted for his paintings of Veracruz customs, whose works include El Velorio, which was presented at the World's Fair in Paris. Enrique Guerra was an important sculptor at the end of the 19th century. His best-known works are bas reliefs and include Asesinato de César, Coroliano, Thais and Crisálida. Alberto Fuster was most active at the end of the century and is noted for bringing symbolism painting to Mexico from his stay in Europe. His works include El progreso, Safo en el templo de Delfos and Nativa con loro.
Writers born at the end of the 19th century, such as Gregorio López y Fuentes, Manuel Maples Arce and Jorge Mateo Cuesta Porte-Petit were often concerned with social issues. Works of this type include El Indio by López, Metrópolis by Maples and a poem called Canto a un dios mineral by Cuesta. The following generation, born in the first decades of the 20th century, became known as the Generation of the 1950s. During this time Veracruz's literary tradition consolidated and decided to break type. One example is Juan Hernández Ramírez's writing of poetry in the Nahuatl spoken in the La Huasteca area of Veracruz. One important name from this generation is Emilio Carballido who wrote about 100 plays as well as scripts for radio and television. Some of his works include Rosalba y los llaveros, Felicidad and Las visitaciones del Diablo. In 1996, he won the Premio Nacional de Literatura and in 2002 he received the Ariel de Oro for his work in cinema.
Education
Public education in the state is supervised by the state Dirección General de Educación Popular and the Dirección General de Educación Media Superior y Superior. The current system is the result of a number of reforms which took place in the 1980s and 1990s. In the late 1990s, 302 new school campuses were created statewide and 257 schools were remodeled. These included new schools for special education, distance learning and technological institutes, giving the state one of the highest number of school campuses in the country. There are a total of 20,479 schools, with nearly 2 million students and about 85,000 teachers. 93% of schools are in the basic education category (preschool, primary and middle schools). Preschools also include those geared towards the indigenous populations, focusing on bilingual and bicultural education in both the indigenous language and Spanish. One major focus of these and other schools is to eliminate illiteracy in indigenous communities. The "Medio Superior" level includes vocational high school and technical colleges. These account for 6.6% of schools in the public system. The Superior level includes teachers' colleges and universities. There are 166 institutes at this level, with about 68,000 students studying 221 different majors. There are also 63 master's degree programs and six PhD programs. These institutions serve about 135,000 students accounting for about 19% of the college-aged population (19- to 24-year-olds), slightly below the national average of 24%.
The major state university is the Universidad Veracruzana, with offers 56 bachelor's degrees, 37 master's degrees, and five PhDs. It is based in the capital of Xalapa and is noted for its large and varied sports programs. There are campuses in fourteen other cities.
| list_by_pop =
| div_name =
| div_link = Municipalities of VeracruzMunicipality
| city_1 = Veracruz, VeracruzVeracruz| div_1 = Veracruz, VeracruzVeracruz/ Boca del Río| pop_1 = 537,963
| city_2 = Xalapa-Enríquez | div_2 = Xalapa-EnríquezXalapa| pop_2 = 443,063
| city_3 = Coatzacoalcos| div_3 =Coatzacoalcos| pop_3 = 212,540
| city_4 = Poza Rica| div_4 = Poza Rica| pop_4 =180,057
| city_5 = Minatitlán, VeracruzMinatitlán| div_5 = Minatitlán, VeracruzMinatitlán/ Cosoleacaque| pop_5 =149,192
| city_6 = Córdoba, VeracruzCórdoba | div_6 = Córdoba, VeracruzCórdoba | pop_6 = 139,075
| city_7 = Orizaba | div_7 = Orizaba| pop_7 = 120,500
| city_8 = Túxpam de Rodríguez Cano | div_8 = Túxpam de Rodríguez CanoTuxpan| pop_8 = 89,557
| city_9 = Martínez de la Torre | div_9 = Martínez de la Torre| pop_9 = 64,692
| city_10 = San Andrés Tuxtla| div_10 = San Andrés Tuxtla| pop_10 = 64,445