Shehu Usman dan Fodio (; 15 December 1754 – 20 April 1817) was a Fulani scholar, Islamic religious teacher, poet, revolutionary and a philosopher who founded the Sokoto Caliphate and ruled as its first caliph.

Born in Gobir, Usman was a descendant of the Oudah clans Fulani people living in the Hausa Kingdoms since the early 1400s. In early life, Usman became well educated in Islamic studies and soon, he began to preach Sunni Islam throughout territories that would later become parts of independent Nigeria and Cameroon. He wrote more than a hundred books concerning religion, government, culture and society. He developed a critique of existing African Muslim elites for what he saw as their greed, paganism, violation of the standards of the Sharia.

Usman formed and began an Islamic religious and social revolution which spread from Gobir throughout modern Nigeria and Cameroon. This revolution influenced other rebellions across West Africa and beyond. In 1803, he founded the Sokoto Caliphate and his followers pledged allegiance to him as the Commander of the Faithful (). Usman declared jihad against the Hausa land and defeated them. Under Usman's leadership, the caliphate expanded into present-day Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Southern Niger and most of Northern Nigeria. Ɗan Fodio declined much of the pomp of rulership, and while developing contacts with religious reformists and jihad leaders across Africa, he soon passed actual leadership of the Sokoto state to his son, Muhammed Bello.

He encouraged literacy and scholarship, for women as well as men, and several of his daughters emerged as scholars and writers. His writings and sayings continue to be much quoted today, and are often affectionately referred to as Shehu in Nigeria. Some followers consider ɗan Fodio to have been a mujaddid, a divinely sent "reformer of Islam".

Shehu dan Fodio's uprising was a major episode of a movement described as the jihad in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. It followed the jihads successfully waged in Futa Bundu, Futa Tooro and Fouta Djallon between 1650 and 1750, which led to the creation of those three Islamic states. In his turn, the Shehu inspired a number of later West African jihads, including those of Seku Amadu, founder of the Massina Empire and Omar Saidou Tall, founder of the Toucouleur Empire, who married one of ɗan Fodio's granddaughters.

Early life

Lineage and childhood

Usman Danfodio belongs to the generation of wandering scholars who started settling in Hausaland since the 1300–1400s, some 400–500 years before the Jihad. The Sheikh's ancestors were Toronkawa who migrated from Futa Tooro in the 1300s under the leadership of Musa Jokollo. Musa Jokollo is the 11th grandfather of the Shehu. There were 11 generations between Musa Jokollo and Shehu Danfodio.

Abdullahi dan Fodio stated that the Torankawa (Turubbi/Torobe) have Arab ancestry through one Uqba who married a Fulani woman called Bajjumangbu. Muhammed Bello was not sure if it was Uqba ibn Nafi, Uqba ibn Yasir or Uqba ibn Amir. Usman dan Fodio's mother Hauwa is believed to be a direct descendant of Muhammad as she was descended from Maulay Idris I, the first Emir of Morocco, who was the great-grandchild of Hasan, grandson of Muhammad.

The Toronkawa first settled in a village called Konni on the borders of Bornu Empire and Songhai Empire, till persecution drove them to Maratta under the leadership of Muhammad Sa'ad, the Sheikh's great-grandfather. A faction of them split and moved to Qoloba. It was in Maratta that Usman Danfodio was born on 15 December 1754. He was born as bi Fodiye, dan Fodio or Ibn Fudiyi, 'the son of Fodiye', his father has earned the Fulani title of Fodiye 'the learned'. A further move by the sheikh's father, Muhammad Bn Fodio after 1754 brought them from Maratta to Degel, but several of their relatives still stayed in the town of Konni. Other Toronkawa, such as Gidado's family moved to Kebbi. Usman and Abdullahi's first teacher was their mother Hauwa who came from a long line of famous literary scholars. Her mother, Usman's grandmother, was Ruqayyah bin Alim, who was a well respected ascetic and teacher. According to Murray Last, Ruqayya is linked to the branch of the family noted for its learning. Ruqayyah's work Alkarim Yaqbal was popular among Islamic scholars of the 18th and 19th century. Hauwa's father and Ruqayyah's husband, Muhammad bin Uthman bin Hamm, was even more famous and respected than Ruqayya. He was regarded as the most learned Fulani cleric of the time.

Education

While Usman was young, he and his family shifted to Degel where he studied the Quran. After studying the Qur'an with his father, Danfodio moved to other teachers. They included his relations, Uthman Bn Duri, and Muhammad Sambo. He also insisted on the observance of the Maliki fiqh in personal observances as well as in commercial and criminal law. Usman also denounced the mixing of men and women, pagan customs, dancing at bridal feasts, and inheritance practices against women contrary to Sharia. Soon, the young Danfodio got massive followership among the peasants and other lower class. In the 1790s, Usman later had visions of Abdul Qadir Gilani, (the founder of the Qadiri tariqah) and ascension to heaven, where he was initiated into the Qadiriyya and the spiritual lineage of Muhammad. Usman later became head of his Qadiriyya brotherhood calling for the purification of Islamic practices.

Balogun (1981, PP. 43-48) has compiled a list of 115 works through various sources. Notable among his works include;

  1. Usul al-`Adl (Principles of Justice)
  2. Bayan Wujub al-hijrah `ala’l-`ibad7 (description of the obligation of migration for People).
  3. Nur al-Ibad (Light of the Slaves)
  4. Najm al-Ikhwan (Star of the Brothers)
  5. Siraj al-Ikhwan (Lamp for the Brothers)
  6. Ihyā’ al-sunna wa ikhmād al-bid’a (The revival of the Prophetic practice and obliteration of false innovation)
  7. Kitab al-Farq (Book of the Difference)
  8. Bayan Bid`ah al-Shaytaniyah (Description of the Satanic innovations)
  9. Abd Al-Qādir b. Mustafā (ten questions put into verse by ‘Uthmanb. Fūdī in one of his non-Arabic poems.)
  10. Ādāb al-‘ādāt
  11. Ādāb al-ākhira
  12. ‘Adad al-dā’i ilā al-dīn
  13. Akhlāq al-mustafā
  14. Al-abyāt ‘alā ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī
  15. Al-ādāb.
  16. Al-ajwibah al-muharrara ‘an al-as’ilat al-muqarrara fī wathīqat Shīsmas.
  17. ‘Alāmāt almuttabi‘in li sunna rasūl Allāh min al-rijāl wa-al-nisā’
  18. Al-amr bi-al-ma’rūf wa-al-nahy an al-munkar (enjoining the good and forbidding the evil)
  19. Al-amr bi-muwālāt al-mu’minīn wa-al-nahy ‘an muwālāt al-kāfirīn.
  20. Al- ‘aql al-awwal.
  21. Al-dālī li-Shaikh ‘Uthmān.
  22. Al-farq baina ‘ilm usūl al-dīn wa baina ‘ilm al-kalām.
  23. Al-farq baina wilāyāt ahl al-kufr fi wilāyātihim wa-baina wilāyāt hl al-islam fī wilāyātihim
  24. Al-fasl al-awwal
  25. Al-hamzīyah
  26. Al-jāmi’.
  27. Al-jihād
  28. Al-khabar al-hādī ilā umūr al-imām al-mahdī

Reforms

Women rights

The first major revolutionary action that Danfodio took at the beginning of his mission was the mass education of women. The Shehu criticized ulama for neglecting half of human beings and ‘leaving them abandoned like beasts’ (Nur al-Albab, p. 10, quoted by Shagari & Boyd, 1978, p. 39). He responded convincingly to objections raised against this (ibid. pp. 84-90) raised by Elkanemi of Borno.

He equally educated and taught his sons and his daughters who carried on his mission after him.

Economic reforms

The Shehu strongly criticized the Hausa ruling elite for their heavy taxation and violation of the Muslim Law. He ‘condemned oppression, all unfairness, the giving and acceptance of bribes, the imposition of unfair taxes, the seizing of land by force, unauthorized grazing of other people’s crops, extraction of money from the poor, imprisonment on false charges and all other injustices (Shagari and Boyd, 1978, p. 15). The Shehu’s followers were required not to remain idle. They were encouraged to learn a craft in order to earn a living. It was considered improper to eat what one had not earned by one’s own efforts’. They engaged in various handcrafts to produce necessities of life (Shagari and Boyd, 1978,. p. 18).

He argued for revival of just Islamic economic institutions such as al-hisbah, hima, bayt al-mal (State treasury), Zakat, Waqf, etc. Mostly his economic ideas are found in his work Bayan Wujub al-Hijrah `ala’-Ibad. Other works in which some economic ideas are found are Kitab al-Farq, Siraj al-Ikhwan, Bayan Bid`ah al-Shaytaniyah, Najm al-Ikhwan and Nur al-Ibad. Property earned through fraudulent means would be confiscated and the funds obtained credited to the state treasury.

The Shehu was very emphatic on Fair market functioning. In his work Bayan al-Bid`ah al-Shaytaniyah (On Satanic Innovations) he forbade ignorant persons from dealing in market. It is for the sake of fairness in dealing in the market that he emphasized revival of the Hisba institutions whose functions include checking the prices, Inspection of the quality of goods, correct weights and measures, prevention of Fraud and Usurious practices, removal of Monopolisation of products, etc. (The Shehu’s work al-Bid`ah al-Shaytaniyah, quoted by Kani, p. 65).

Public expenditure

On public expenditure, the Shehu based his ideas on Ibn al-Juza’iy (d.741/1340) and al-Ghazali (d. 505-1111). In his treatise to the Emirs, Shehu emphasised expenditure on Defence by preparing armaments and by paying soldiers. If there remains anything, it goes to the judges, state officials, for the building of mosques and bridges and then it is divided among the poor. If any still remains, the Emir has the option of either giving it to the rich or keeping it (in the bayt al-mal) to deal with disasters that may occur (ibid. p. 131, quoted by Gusau, 1989, pp. 144-45). The sultan responded violently to Danfodio's Islamic Community. Some members of the Jama'a were imprisoned.

Assassination attempt

In 1802, Nafata's successor Yunfa, a former student of Usman, turned against him, revoking Degel's autonomy and attempting to assassinate Usman at Alkalawa. He captured some of Shehus followers as prisoners. After unsuccessful attempt, Yunfa then turned for aid to the other leaders of the Hausa states, warning them that Usman could trigger a widespread jihad.,

Yunfa at the end of his first year faced rebellion from Zamfara, Invasion by Katsina, the Sullubawa who are loyal to Katsina, and the Muslim Community who are becoming increasingly powerful and who are restive under the moderation of the Shehu. The salute of allegiance was first given by Abdullahi dan Fodio, and then by Muhammed Bello. Danfodio was old (50 years) and weak and was to take no part in the fighting. The position was mere ceremonial (p. 24). By this time, Usman had assembled a wide following among the Fulani, Hausa peasants and Toureg nomads.

After Usman declared Jihad, he gathered an army of Hausa warriors to attack Yunfa's forces in Tsuntua. Yunfa's army, composed of Hausa warriors and Tuareg allies, defeated Usman's forces and killed about 2,000 soldiers, 200 of whom were hafiz (memorizers of the Quran). Yunfa's victory was short-lived as soon after, Usman captured Kebbi and Gwandu in the following year. At the time of the war, Fulani communications were carried along trade routes and rivers draining into the Niger-Benue valley, as well as the delta and the lagoons. The call for jihad reached not only other Hausa states such as Kano, Daura, Katsina and Zazzau, but also Borno, Gombe, Adamawa and Nupe.

The Battle of Tabkin Kwotto

The first skirmishes when a small group of soldiers from Gobir were beaten back (p.24). After only a few years, Usman found himself in command of the states. The Sokoto Caliphate had become the largest state south of the Sahara at the time. In 1812, the caliphate's administration was reorganized, with Usman's son Muhammed Bello and brother Abdullahi dan Fodio carrying on the jihad and administering the western and eastern governance respectively. Around this time, Usman returned to teaching and writing about Islam. Usman also worked to establish an efficient government grounded in Islamic law.

The Sokoto Caliphate was a combination of an Islamic state and a modified Hausa monarchy. Muhammed Bello introduced Islamic administration, Muslim judges, market inspectors and prayer leaders were appointed, and an Islamic tax and land system were instituted with revenues on the land considered kharaj and the fees levied on individual subjects called jizya, as in classical Islamic times. The Fulani cattle-herding nomads were sedentarized and converted to sheep and goat raising as part of an effort to bring them under the rule of Muslim law. Mosques and Madrassahs were built to teach the populace, Islam. The state patronized large numbers of religious scholars or mallams. Sufism became widespread. Arabic, Hausa and Fulfulde languages saw a revival of poetry, and Islam was taught in Hausa and Fulfulde.

In Islam outside the Arab World, David Westerlund wrote: "The jihad resulted in a federal theocratic state, with extensive autonomy for emirates, recognizing the spiritual authority of the caliph or the sultan of Sokoto".

Usman addressed in his books what he saw as the flaws and demerits of the African non-Muslim or nominally Muslim rulers. Some of the accusations he made were corruption at various levels of the administration and neglect of the rights of ordinary people. Usman also criticized heavy taxation and obstruction of the business and trade of the Hausa states by the legal system.

Dan Fodio believed in a state without written constitution, which was based on the Quran, the Sunnah and the ijma.

Personal life

In Rawd al-Janaan (The Meadows of Paradise), Waziri Gidado ɗan Laima (1777–1851) listed ɗan Fodio's wives as his first cousin Maymuna and Aisha ɗan Muhammad Sa'd. With Maymuna he had 11 children, including Aliyu (1770s–1790s) and the twins Hasan (1793– November 1817) and Nana Asmaʼu (1793–1864). Aisha was also known as Gaabdo ('Joy' in Fulfulde) and as Iyya Garka (Hausa for 'Lady of the House/Compound'). She was famed for her Islamic knowledge and for being the matriarch of the family. She outlived her husband by many decades. Among others, she was the mother of Muhammad Sa'd (1777 – before 1800).

Writings

Usman ɗan Fodio "wrote hundreds of works on Islamic sciences ranging from creed, Maliki jurisprudence, hadith criticism, poetry and Islamic spirituality", the majority of them being in Arabic. He also penned about 480 poems in Arabic, Fulfulde and Hausa.

In fiction

Usman ɗan Fodio appears as a playable character in the 2020 video game Age of Empires III: Definitive Edition.

See also

  • Hausa Kingdoms
  • History of Nigeria
  • Makera Assada
  • Muhammad al-Maghili
  • Muhammed Bello
  • Nana Asmaʼu
  • Sokoto
  • Sokoto Caliphate
  • Usmanu Danfodiyo University

Notes

References

Bibliography

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