Umbanda

thumb|right|An Umbandista wearing the white clothing typically worn in the religion's ceremonies

Umbanda () is a religion that emerged in Brazil during the 1920s. Deriving largely from Spiritism, it also combines elements from Afro-Brazilian traditions like Candomblé as well as Roman Catholicism. There is no central authority in control of Umbanda, which is organized around autonomous places of worship termed centros or terreiros, the followers of which are called Umbandistas.

Adherents of this monotheistic religion believe in a single God who is distant from humanity. Beneath this entity are powerful non-human spirits called orixás. In the more Spiritist-oriented wing of the religion, White Umbanda, these are viewed as divine energies or forces of nature; in more Africanised forms they are seen as West African deities and are offered animal sacrifices. The emissaries of the orixás are the pretos velhos and caboclos, spirits of enslaved Africans and of indigenous Brazilians respectively, and these are the main entities dealt with by Umbandistas. At Umbandist rituals, spirit mediums sing and dance in the hope of channeling these spirits, through whom the congregations receive guidance, advice, and healing. Umbanda teaches a complex cosmology involving a system of reincarnation according to the law of karma. The religion's ethics emphasise charity and social fraternity. Umbandistas also seek to reverse harm that they attribute to practitioners of a related tradition, Quimbanda.

Roman Catholicism was the dominant religion in early 20th-century Brazil, but sizeable minorities practiced Afro-Brazilian traditions or Spiritism, a French version of Spiritualism developed by Allan Kardec. Around the 1920s, various groups may have been combining Spiritist and Afro-Brazilian practices, forming the basis of Umbanda. The most important group was that established by Zélio Fernandino de Moraes and those around him in Niterói, Rio de Janeiro. He had been involved in Spiritism but disapproved of the negative attitude that many Spiritists held towards contact with pretos velhos and caboclos. Reflecting Umbanda's growth, in 1939 de Moraes formed an Umbandist federation and in 1941 held the first Umbandist congress. Umbanda gained increased social recognition and respectability amid the military dictatorship of 1964 to 1985, despite growing opposition from both the Roman Catholic Church and Pentecostal groups. Since the 1970s, Umbanda has seen some decline due to the resurgent popularity of Candomblé.

In Brazil, hundreds of thousands of people formally identify as Umbandistas, but the number who attend Umbandist ceremonies, sometimes on an occasional basis, is in the millions. In its heyday of the 1960s and 1970s, Umbanda was estimated to have between 10 and 20 million followers in Brazil. Reflecting a universalist attitude, practitioners are typically permitted to also follow other religious traditions. Umbanda is found primarily in urban areas of southern Brazil although has spread throughout the country and to other parts of the Americas.

Definitions

thumb|right|An Umbandista dressed in ritual attire

Formed in the state of Rio de Janeiro during the 1920s, Umbanda combines elements of Spiritism (Espiritismo) with ideas from Afro-Brazilian religions like Candomblé. Additional influences come from Roman Catholicism, as well as Asian religions like Hinduism and Buddhism. The religion's practitioners are called Umbandistas, while the term Umbanda itself may derive from the Portuguese language terms uma banda, meaning "one group".

Umbanda is not a unified religion, having no central institutional authority, and being transmitted in a largely oral manner. It displays considerable variation and eclecticism, being highly adaptable, and taking various different forms. Much of this variation is regional. Several scholars deem it appropriate to talk about "Umbandas", in the plural, as much as a singular Umbanda. Reflecting a general universalist stance that encourages tolerance towards other traditions, Umbandistas are commonly permitted to also pursue other religions, with some also practising Roman Catholicism, Judaism, or Santo Daime.

Reflecting its Spiritist origins, Umbanda has been labelled a Western esoteric tradition. It has also been called an Afro-Brazilian religion, although the scholar of religion Steven Engler cautioned that Africanised ritual elements are not present in all Umbandist groups and that the Spiritist influence is more significant across Umbanda as a whole. There are also Umbandist groups that have adopted Kabbalah, or New Age practices.

Relation to Afro-Brazilian religions

Umbandist groups exist on a spectrum, from those emphasising Spiritist connections to those stressing links with Candomblé and related Afro-Brazilian religions. Groups taking the former position often refer to themselves as practicing Umbanda branca ("White Umbanda"), Umbanda pura ("Pure Umbanda"), or Umbanda limpa ("Clean Umbanda"). The anthropologist Lindsay Hale referred to the more Africanist wing as "Afro-Brazilian Umbanda", while fellow anthropologist Diana Brown called it "Africanized Umbanda". Most Umbandist groups exist at points between these two poles.

thumb|left|An Umbandist centro in Rio de Janeiro

In practice, Afro-Brazilian religions often mix, rather than existing in pure forms, and thus scholars see them as existing on a continuum rather than being firmly distinct from each other. Brown noted that the boundary separating Umbanda from Candomblé was largely "a matter of individual opinion". She added that there was "no general consensus" as to what exactly Umbanda is and what it is not. In Rio de Janeiro, a tradition called Omolocô was established as an intermediate religion between Candomblé and Umbanda. Groups combining elements of Umbanda and Candomblé are sometimes termed "Umbandomblé", although this is rarely embraced by practitioners themselves. In the Porto Alegre area, it is common for groups to mix Umbanda with the Afro-Brazilian religion Batuque.

Outsiders sometimes refer to Umbanda as Macumba, a pejorative term for Afro-Brazilian religions. While some Umbandistas have referred to themselves as macumbeiros, often in jest due to the term's negative connotations, Umbandist literature usually uses Macumba in a more restrictive sense to designate baixa espiritismo (low spiritism), traditions that work with lesser spirits for morally questionable purposes. Umbandistas often describe these practices as Quimbanda and emphasise their opposition to them, maintaining that Umbandistas work for good while Quimbandistas work for evil. The boundaries between Umbanda and Quimbanda are nevertheless not always clear, with various spirit mediums engaging or promoting practices associated with both. The anthropologist David J. Hess called the two religions "siblings".

Beliefs

Various Umbandistas have claimed that theirs is not a new religion but an ancient tradition brought to Brazil from elsewhere. Some practitioners have claimed that it derives from ancient Egypt, India, or China, or from the Aztecs or Incas. Others have maintained that Umbanda's origins are either extraterrestrial or from Atlantis. These sorts of origin stories reflect the influence of Theosophy. Brown suggested that these explanations were adopted by Umbandistas eager to dismiss the possibility of their religion having Sub-Saharan African origin. In contrast, various practitioners of Africanised forms of Umbanda have maintained that the religion originally came from Africa.

Theology and cosmology

thumb|right|A group of Umbandistas in Rio de Janeiro

Umbanda is monotheistic. It believes in a single God who is the creator and controller of the universe, an entity that presides over the astral world but who is distant from humanity. He is sometimes called Olorun, a name of Yoruba origin. Beneath God is a pantheon of spirits that reflect syncretic origins, assembled into what Brown called "a complex, impersonal bureaucracy", and it is these entities thought to intervene in humanity's daily lives.

Although it has no authoritative source ensuring a standardised cosmological belief among practitioners, Umbanda has an elaborate cosmology. An important distinction is made between the material and the spiritual, with the latter considered far superior. Umbandist theology is largely Spiritist in basis, adopting the Spiritist emphasis on reincarnation and spiritual evolution, as well as the hierarchical ranking of spirits according to their "degree of evolution".

Many Umbandistas believe in a three-part cosmos, divided between the astral spaces, the earth, and the underworld. The more highly evolved spirits dwell in the astral realm, spirits incarnated in physical form reside temporarily on earth, while malevolent and ignorant spirits inhabit the underworld. The barrier between these worlds is not impenetrable; spirits from both the astral and underworld realms can visit the earth. Umbandistas often refer to the plano astral (astral plane) as the além (beyond). Sometimes, the realm of the evolved spirits is also called Aruanda, a term that likely derives from Luanda, a port in modern Angola, but which in Umbanda has looser connotations of an area within the astral plane.

The astral world is deemed to be divided into a hierarchy of seven vertical levels, the Sête Linhas de Umbanda (Seven Lines of Umbanda), although the specific identity of each line varies among Umbandistas. This seven-fold division may derive from Theosophy. Each of the Seven Lines is governed by an orixá, a highly evolved spirit who will also have an identity as a Roman Catholic saint. The underworld is also divided into Seven Lines, each of which is led by an exú spirit. Each Line is also internally divided into seven sub-lines; each of these is then divided into seven legions; these divide into seven sub-legions; these into seven falanges (phalanges); and these into seven sub-falanges. Umbandistas often liken this cosmological structure to the organization of an army, and it may reflect the prominent role that various military figures have played in Umbanda's history. The spirits inhabiting these groups are usually arranged on the basis of regional or racial origin.

Orixás

thumb|right|A statue of Iemanjá in Salvador

At the top of Umbanda's hierarchy of spirits are the orixás, entities often regarded as deities. The term orixá derives from the Yoruba language of West Africa, as do the names of the various orixás themselves, which in Brazil are also employed in the Nagô or Ketu tradition of Candomblé. Although the names of the orixás are drawn from Candomblé, Umbandistas do not typically interpret these beings in the same way that Candomblé's practitioners do. There is nevertheless variation according to group; African-oriented Umbandistas place particular emphasis on the orixás, while they remain far less important in the rituals of White Umbandist groups.

For Umbandistas, the orixás are God's intermediaries, and represent elemental forces of nature as well as humanity's primary economic activities. White Umbandist groups often perceive the orixás primarily as frequencies of spiritual energy, vibrations, or forces. They are regarded as beings so highly evolved that they have never incarnated in physical form. Like God, they are distant from humanity, permanently residing on the astral plane. Many Umbandistas rarely expect orixás to manifest during rituals, for the orixás are preoccupied with important spiritual matters. They are also thought too powerful for many humans to handle, meaning that their manifestation could be dangerous for the ritual's participants. Instead, the orixás send their emissaries, the caboclos and pretos velhos, to appear in their place.

thumb|left|An offering to Iemanjá

Nine orixás are commonly found in Umbanda, fewer than the 16 more usually present in Candomblé. The son of Olorun, Oxalá is associated with the sky and regarded as the creator of humanity. Iemanjá is a maternal figure associated with the sea. Nanã is also a maternal figure associated with water, but in her case the waters of the lake and swamp. Omolu is the orixá of sickness and healing. Xangô is linked to thunder and lightning, as well as to stone working and quarrying. Ogúm is the orixá of war, metalworking, agriculture, and transportation. Oxúm is associated with fertility and with flowing water, especially streams and waterfalls. Iansã is a female warrior who manifests in storms. Oxóssi is a hunter who lives in the forest. Exú is a trickster and the guardian of the crossroads, being the intermediary between the orixás and humanity. He will often be paid homage first during a ritual, to stop him being disruptive later in the rite.

Each of the orixás is deemed to have their own desires and emotions. The orixás are also associated with particular colors; Oxúm with blue, for instance, and Oxóssi with green. Each is also linked to particular days of the week; Iansã with Wednesday, and Nanã with Tuesday, for example. They are also associated with a particular celestial body, such as Xangô with the planet Jupiter and Iemanjá with the moon.

Each orixá is typically associated with a Roman Catholic saint. It is in this form that they are often represented on Umbandist altars, and these links are also reinforced in praise songs. Xangô, for instance, is often identified with Saint Geronimo, Nanã with Saint Anne, and Omolu with Saint Roch and Saint Lazarus. Many Umbandistas identify Exú with the Devil of Christian theology, and Oxalá with Jesus Christ. There is often regional variation in these associations; in Rio de Janeiro, Iemanjá is typically linked to Our Lady of Glory, while in Salvador she is associated with Our Lady of the Conception. There are nevertheless differences of opinion among Umbandistas as to the nature of the relationship between orixás and saints. Many Umbandistas regard the orixás and saints as manifestations of the same spiritual force rather than being exactly the same figure; some practitioners believe that these saints were once humans who were physical manifestations of the orixás.

Relationships with the orixás

Umbanda often teaches that each person has a coroa (crown) of protective spirit entities. The most important of these is the orixá da frente ("the front orixá"), an orixá deemed to be that individual's spiritual parent. These entities are a person's protectors and patrons. They are also deemed to influence that individual's personality traits. Umbandistas believe that these entities are deserving of respect and that treating them well will improve a person's life. In Umbanda, it is usual for a medium to personally determine the identity of a person's spirit patrons. This is different from Candomblé, where the identity is more often ascertained through forms of divination; divination in general plays much less of a role in Umbanda than in Candomblé. Knowing the identity of these orixás is deemed to offer a person insights about themselves.

Lesser evolved spirits

Although very different in tone from one another, the pretos velhos and the caboclos are together the most important spirit types in Umbanda. Umbanda departs from Spiritism over the value placed on these entities, with Umbandistas believing that Spiritists often negatively misjudge the pretos velhos and the caboclos because of their appearance. For Umbandistas, the caboclos and pretos velhos are "beings of light", entities who inhabit the lower echelons of the Seven Lines of the astral plane. In emphasising the spirits of these socially marginalised groups, Umbanda is sometimes characterised as having an egalitarian nature.

Although they are only the emissaries of the orixás, the pretos velhos and caboclos take centre stage in Umbandist rituals. They are particularly prominent during rituals in which practitioners seek assistance with their problems, with Umbandistas approaching these entities in the hope of receiving advice and protection. In practice, Umbanda strongly emphasises practitioner's personal relationships with these spirit beings, with ritual homage given to them in exchange for cures and advice. This relationship bears similarities with that between devotees and the saints in popular Catholicism.

Pretos Velhos

thumb|right|Figurines of the pretos velhos ("old blacks"), one of the most popular spirit types in Umbanda

The pretos velhos ("old blacks") are usually, although not always, regarded as the spirits of deceased African slaves. They are usually conceived as being elderly, and thus referred to with respectful terms like vovô ("grandfather") and vovó ("grandmother"). The pretos velhos are deemed to be kind, patient, and wise. Despite the suffering they endured in life, they are thought to preach forgiveness and love. They are regarded as healers and counsellors, spirits to whom Umbandistas can bring their problems. When a medium deems themselves possessed by one of the pretos velhos, they will often smoke a pipe.

The names of these pretos velhos often reflect Catholic forenames followed by an African national affiliation, as with Maria Congo or Maria d'Aruanda. They will sometimes be addressed collectively as the povo de Bahia (people from Bahia) or as members of a particular nation, such as the povo da Congo (people from Congo). These spirits are commemorated on the feast of the old slaves, held on May 13, marking the day in 1888 when slavery was abolished in Brazil. Wayside shrines dedicated to the pretos velhos can be found in various places in Brazil, although in parts of Amazonia, Umbandist groups have often ignored the pretos velhos or subsumed them as a type of caboclo.

Brown suggested that the portrayal of the pretos velhos reflected the stereotype of the "faithful slave" common in the writings of Brazilians like Castro Alves and Artur Azevedo. This literary trope had in turn been influenced by the popularity of Portuguese translations of the 1852 American novel Uncle Tom's Cabin.

Caboclos

thumb|right|Figurine of a caboclo, the spirit of an indigenous Brazilian hunter and warrior

Caboclos are usually the spirits of indigenous Brazilians, especially those of the Amazon rainforest. In Umbanda, they are regarded as hunters and warriors who are highly intelligent and brave, but also vain and arrogant. Their power comes from the forces of nature, including the sun and moon, waterfalls, and the forest. Their individual names often reflect these links to nature, for instance Caboclo Mata Virgem (Caboclo Virgin Forest) or Caboclo Coral (Caboclo Coral Snake). They are often described as living in the forest, or alternatively in a paradisiacal city in the forest called Jurema.

These spirits often have snakes as their companions, something alluded to in the songs sung about them, and which may derive from certain Afro-Brazilian traditions from northeast Brazil. The caboclos are deemed to have been people who roamed free, and thus can be contrasted with the pretos velhos, who in life were held in bondage. When mediums believe themselves possessed by caboclos, they often adopt stern expressions and make loud, piercing cries, also smoking and drinking alcohol. When these caboclo-possessed individuals perform healing on clients, they often blow cigar smoke over the latter as a means of cleansing and curing them.

The caboclos do not derive from any prolonged contact that Umbanda's founders had with indigenous peoples, but instead reflect the popular Indianismo of Brazilian culture. Their portrayal often draws on the stereotype of Brazil's indigenous peoples being "noble savages", and reflect the heroic depiction of indigenous Brazilians that developed in the country's Romantic literature from the mid-19th century. The term caboclo may derive from the Tupi language term kari'boka ("deriving from the white"). Although associated primarily with indigenous spirits, the term caboclo is also sometimes used for the spirits of cowboys or frontiersmen, or—in parts of northeast Brazil—Turkish kings.

Other evolved spirits

Below the caboclos and pretos velhos in the Seven Lines of the astral realm are a large number of unidentified guias (spirit guides) and espíritos protetores (spirit protectors). Other types of spirit found in Umbanda include the boiadeiros (cowboys), crianças (children), marinheiros (sailors), malandros (rogues), ciganos (gypsies) and sereias (mermaids).

The crianças are spirits of children and are valued largely for the joy and humor that they bring. Thought to be pure and innocent, they are deemed to enjoy sweets and toys just like living children. In Umbandist rites they are thought to often appear towards the end of proceedings, after tiring adult issues have been dealt with. Those mediums possessed by the crianças often giggle, sing nursery rhymes, and perform in a child-like fashion. Umbandistas often hold an annual birthday party for these spirits on the Roman Catholic feast day of the child martyr saints Cosmas and Damian. It is possible that the crianças derive in part from beliefs about the Ibeji twins, spirits venerated in parts of West Africa.

Exús and pombagiras

In Umbanda, the exús are spirits yet to complete the process of karmic evolution. They are unevolved spirits of darkness which, by working for good, can gradually become spirits of light. Interpretations of these exús nevertheless differ among Umbandistas, with more African-oriented practitioners often taking a more positive attitude towards them. Exús are associated with Friday, and with the colors red and black. They are also linked to the obtaining of power, money, and sex. The term exú derives from the name of a Yoruba orisha spirit regarded as a trickster.

Exús fall into two main categories. The exús da luz (exús of the light) or exús batizados (baptised exús) have repented for their sins and seek redemption and karmic advancement by serving the orixás. In life, the exús da luz were often sinners who performed immoral acts through noble intentions. The other type of exús are the exús das trevas (exús of the shadows), spirits who are unrepentant and who afflict and torment the living. They may act as "obsessors", finding a human victim and "leaning" (encostado) on them, causing the latter problems such as bad luck, compulsive behaviours, or addiction. The exús das trevas may do this due to their resentment of the living, or because they have been commanded to do so by a feiticeiro (sorcerer) practicing Quimbanda. These negative exús are sometimes also called Exú pagão (pagan exú), reflecting the influence of Christian thought. In Umbanda, the exús are often referred to with Christian-derived names like the Devil, Satan, or Lucifer, and are portrayed as being red with horns and tridents, reflecting Christian iconographical influence.

The female counterparts of the exús, pombagiras are regarded as being the spirits of immoral women, such as prostitutes. Linked to marginal and dangerous places, they are associated with sexuality, blood, death, and cemeteries. They are often presented as being ribald and flirty, speaking in sexual euphemisms and double entendres. They wear red and black clothing, and only possess women and gay men, who will then often smoke or drink alcohol, using obscene language and behaving lasciviously. The term pombagira may derive from the Bantu word bombogira, the name of a male orixá in Candomblé's Bantu tradition. In Brazilian Portuguese, the term pomba is a euphemism for the vulva. When rituals focus on the exús and pombagiras, some Umbandistas will say that it constitutes Quimbanda.

Mediumship

Central to Umbanda are the spirit mediums, individuals responsible for contacting the good spirits. According to Brown, these mediums represent "a sort of intermediate category of semi-specialists" within the religion. Umbandistas believe that the skill of mediumship, or mediunidade, is innate to certain individuals, those capable of vidéncia (seeing) spirit or sensing the spirits' presence through intuition. Umbandist mediums are typically called filhas and filhos de santo (daughters and sons of the saint). Several scholars who have studied the religion have noted that women predominate as spirit mediums. From her research in the late 1960s and 1970s, Brown found that around two-thirds of Umbandist mediums were female and a third were male. She noted that while a few were under the age of 18, this was generally discouraged.

thumb|left|Umbandist mediums may receive necklace to mark the completion of their training

Most Umbandist mediums take on this role as a result of an initial personal crisis, often physical illness or emotional distress, that they come to believe is being caused by spirits as a means of alerting them. Often, they report that they initially resisted the call to become a medium but that the problems faced became too much and so they relented. Developing one's innate mediumistic abilities then takes training; in Umbanda, it may take seven years or more to train, a process known as desensolver mediunidade ("to develop mediumistic abilities"). While a novice, the medium may be called a cambona or cambono. They will often be tasked with assisting established mediums during Umbandista rituals, for instance as ushers or scribes, writing down the messages from the spirits. Novice mediums may find their early possession experiences uncontrollable, but over time they learn to control it. To mark completion of this training, the medium may be given a necklace, the guia ("guide"); henceforth, they are a medium com guia ("medium with a guide").

Each of a medium's spirits will often have their own unique character. Expert mediums are thought to work with spirits from each of the Seven Lines. A medium's relationship with their exú or pombagira is considered close, and is mediated through the giving of gifts. Reciprocity is expected when engaging with the spirits, with those seeking their services often providing them with gifts. A person's misfortunes may be interpreted as a reminder that obligations to the spirits have not been met.

Many Umbandistas believe that a good medium should maintain a healthy and pure body, for this reason avoiding smoking, over-eating, or drinking alcohol, especially on the night of an Umbandista session. Some Umbandista mediums operate out of their home, rather than running a centre.

Reincarnation

thumb|right|An Umbandist carrying offerings to Iemanjá to a river

Umbanda teaches that everyone has a spirit that survives bodily death. Umbandistas sometimes refer to living people as espíritos enćarnados (incarnate spirits). Like Spiritists, Umbandistas typically believe that each person has a perispirit, a transparent membrane around the body that mediates between the body and soul. They believe that disturbances in either body and soul can impact the perispirit.

From Spiritism, Umbanda takes the ideas of reincarnation and karmic evolution; the terms reincarnação and karma were largely introduced to Brazilian Portuguese via the ideas of Spiritism's French founder, Allan Kardec. Umbandistas believe that the spirit survives bodily death and goes on successive reincarnations, seeking ever higher levels of spiritual evolution. Everyone is subject to karma, and a person can spiritually evolve through their incarnations.

Reincarnation is a central idea for many Umbandistas. Practitioners believe that by serving the spirits and assisting the living they can build up their karmic credit. The higher a person's karmic credit, the higher their level on the astral plane, and then the better the status of their next incarnation. Umbandistas believe that disincarnate spirits can also build up karmic credit. Practitioners sometimes believe that the events of previous incarnations can influence a person, for instance generating certain irrational fears. Some Umbandistas think that the same spirits can meet repeatedly over successive incarnations.

Morality, ethics, and gender roles

Umbandist morality places key emphasis on caridade (charity), something also evident in Spiritism, and which for both religions may derive ultimately from Roman Catholicism. As in Spiritism, for Umbandistas charity is regarded as a key motor for spiritual evolution. Practitioners for instance may give gifts and food to poor children to mark the festival of the . Umbandistas also place value on humility. Umbandistas often believe that things happen for a reason, rather than being mere coincidence, and are part of a person's path in life. Brown suggested that Umbanda was "an essentially conservative religion", for it does not challenge the socio-economic status quo, and encourages "individual rather than collective responsibility and action".

Brown argued that Umbanda inherited the Roman Catholic view that the world was a battleground between good and evil. Umbandistas often embody all the things that they oppose in the term Quimbanda. In the Umbandist view, Quimbanda is associated with evil, immorality, and pollution, and particularly with the use of exús. Given that Umbanda places focus on combating the harmful influences of exús, a common saying among Umbandistas is that "if it weren't for Quimbanda, Umbanda would have no reason to exist". Brown noted that Quimbanda represented "a crucial negative mirror image against which to define Umbanda", suggesting that it could also serve as an "ideological vehicle for expressing prejudices" towards African-derived and lower class religions. In Brazil, there are also individuals who call themselves Quimbandeiros and openly practice Quimbanda.

Noting the predominance of women as spirit mediums, the scholar Patricia Lerch suggested that Umbanda offered Brazilian women a level of prestige and influence otherwise not offered by the low-paying jobs available to them.

Engler noted that Umbanda, like Candomblé, offers "scope for the performance of alternative sexualities in a society governed by very conservative heterosexual gender roles." Afro-Brazilian religions are often stereotyped as attracting gay men, and to avoid this stereotype some male Umbandistas refuse to be possessed by female spirits. Based on research in the late 1960s and 1970s, Brown noted that a few centros had "an openly gay orientation" with a largely gay clientele, and in the 21st century some Umbandist priests have conducted same-sex marriages. The orixá Oxumaré, as an entity that spends six months being male and six months being female, is sometimes cited as a patron of gay and bisexual people.

Practices

Umbandist practices often revolve around clients who approach practitioners seeking assistance, for instance in diagnosing a problem, healing, or receiving a blessing. In Umbanda, spiritual knowledge and ethical behaviour are generally seen as being more important than ritual action.

Houses of worship

thumb|right|An Umbandist centro, or place of worship

Umbandist places of worship are termed centros, or alternatively tendas (tents). Those adopting a more African-orientation are sometimes called terreiros; this term comes from Candomblé, and so is avoided by some practitioners of White Umbanda. Each centro will typically have its own Padroeiro, or patron spirit. They are often totally autonomous, although some are members of larger Umbandist federations. Due to their autonomous organization, some Umbandist leaders as of 2025 have been accused and arrested in insolated incidents, following allegations of "rape, sexual violence by fraud, sexual harassment, torture, extortion, threats, and bodily harm," and "concealment of evidence" among other cases of religious abuse. In 2024, an arrest was also made on similar allegations. Following one arrest, the Ceará Spiritist Union of Umbanda reiterated their "complete confidence in the innocence of our member".

Umbanda has also influenced some practitioners of Santo Daime, and a tradition called Umbandaime has emerged as a hybridized religion combining elements of both. Umbandist trance states have also been studied by Heathens seeking to create new forms of seiðr.

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading

External links

• Entry on Umbanda by Steve Engler at the World Religions and Spirituality Project