thumb|Tsuchigumo, from [[Bakemono no e scroll, Brigham Young University]]

is a historical Japanese derogatory term for renegade local clans, primarily during the Asuka, Nara, and early Heian periods, and also the name for a race of spider-like in Japanese folklore. Alternative names for the historical groups include , and for the mythological Tsuchigumo, and . In the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, the name was phonetically spelled with the four kanji (for the four morae tsu-chi-gu-mo). References to "tsuchigumo" appear in the chronicles associated with Emperor Jimmu, Emperor Keiko, and Empress Jingū, and these words were frequently used in the (ancient reports on provincial culture, geography, and oral tradition) of various provinces, including Mutsu, Echigo, Hitachi, Settsu, Bungo, and Hizen. This name likely referred to the fact that many of these clans utilized existing cave systems or built fortified dugouts and earthworks (Japanese: 土窟; tsuchi-muro or iwa-muro) in which to live and defend themselves. The 14th-century (picture scroll) Tsuchigumo Sōshi portrays it as a colossal monster, and stories involving its extermination often feature Yorimitsu and his legendary retainer Watanabe no Tsuna, heroes also famous for defeating the powerful Shuten-dōji. The yōkai Tsuchigumo became a popular subject in Noh theatre, Jōruri puppet plays, and Kabuki. Similarly, the modern Japanese common name for tarantulas (Ōtsuchigumo-ka, オオツチグモ科, Theraphosidae) which was inspired by the mythological creature has no historical link, as tarantulas are not native to Japan.

In history

References to Tsuchigumo appear across Japan, indicating the term was applied to various local powers resisting Yamato authority. Historical records mention Tsuchigumo in at least seven locations in Hitachi province, six in Bungo, twelve in Hizen, two in Mutsu, and one in Hyūga, primarily in Kyushu, Tōhoku, and Kantō regions. Around 45 individual chieftain names associated with Tsuchigumo are recorded, among which 14 include titles like "me" (女, woman), "hime" (姫/媛, princess), suggesting female leadership was not uncommon, particularly in Hizen. The Hitachi no Kuni Fudoki explicitly states that "Kuzu" and "Tsuchigumo" were synonymous terms in that region. The Tsuchigumo of Takaowari were described as having small bodies and long limbs.

A unique physical characteristic attributed to the indigenous people of Yamato in early chronicles was the possession of tails. The Nihon Shoki describes the ancestor of the Yoshino no Futo (吉野首) clan as "glowing, with a tail", and the ancestor of the Yoshino no Kuzu (国樔) as "having a tail and pushing aside rocks". These descriptions likely served to portray the pre-Yamato inhabitants as non-human or primitive.

Other regions and Emperor Keiko's campaigns

Several accounts detail conflicts during the reign of Emperor Keiko (traditionally 71–130 AD):

  • Hizen Province: The Hizen no Kuni Fudoki records that during an imperial visit to Shiki island (志式島, likely part of modern Hirado Island) around year 72, smoke was seen rising from nearby islands. Investigation revealed Tsuchigumo named Ōmimi (大耳) on the smaller island and Taremimi (垂耳) on the larger one. When captured and facing execution, they prostrated themselves, offered fish products, and pledged allegiance, thus securing their pardon. The same text relates the story of Tsuchigumo Yasome (土蜘蛛八十女) in Kijima county. "Yaso" (八十) means "eighty" but here signifies "many", suggesting multiple female leaders resisted the Yamato forces. Yasome, popular among her people, reportedly fortified herself in the mountains but was ultimately defeated and her forces annihilated. This story is often interpreted as representing the heroic but tragic resistance of female chieftains against Yamato expansion. It's noted that another local female leader reported Yasome's location to the emperor and was spared for her cooperation. Conversely, Hayakitsu-hime (速来津姫) of Hayaki in Sonogi county submitted peacefully to Emperor Keiko, offering three valuable pearls (natural pearls called shiratama, isonokami mokurenji-tama, utsukushiki-tama).
  • Chikugo Province: The Nihon Shoki records that in the 3rd month of the 9th year of Emperor Chūai's reign (legendary year 200), Empress Jingū subdued a local queen named Taburatsu-hime (田油津媛) in Yamato county (山門郡, modern Yanagawa/Miyama area).
  • Tango Province: The Tango no Kuni Fudoki Zanketsu, a document purported to be a fragment of the lost Tango Fudoki (though its authenticity is debated, possibly being a later forgery), mentions a Tsuchigumo named Kuga-mimi-no-Mikasa (陸耳御笠) who ravaged the land. He was supposedly defeated by Prince Hikoimasu (日子坐王), brother of Emperor Sujin, and fled to Yosa-no-Ōeyama (與佐大山), identified with modern Ōeyama. This has led some to call Kuga-mimi the "first oni of Ōeyama".

right|thumb|250px|"Tsuchigumo" from the [[Konjaku Gazu Zoku Hyakki by Sekien Toriyama, depicted as a spider yōkai]]

thumb|250px|[[Minamoto no Yorimitsu cutting the Tsuchigumo yōkai. Woodblock print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi, early Bunsei period (c. 1818–1830). Part of a diptych.]]

thumb|250px|From the [[Tsuchigumo Sōshi, depicting strange yōkai appearing before Yorimitsu and his retainers in an old mansion]]

thumb|250px| Two [[Japanese sword mountings|tsuba (sword guards) depicting Minamoto no Yorimitsu confronting the Tsuchigumo. Left: By Unno Yoshimori I. Right: By Gochiku Sadakatsu. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.]]

Yōkai Tsuchigumo

From the Japanese middle ages (Kamakura/Muromachi/Azuchi-Momoyama periods, or the late 12th to the early 17th centuries) onward, tsuchigumo began to be depicted as giant, monstrous spiders, often referred to as either or . These depictions drew little direct inspiration from the historical accounts of rebellious clans, instead developing into distinct folklore figures.

The Tale of the Heike and Yorimitsu

A key text in popularizing the Tsuchigumo yōkai is The Tale of the Heike (Heike Monogatari). This work, passed down orally among biwa lute players, exists in numerous variants, including the expanded Genpei Jōsuiki. Some versions contain an extended passage on swords known as the "Sword Scroll" (tsurugi-no-maki). This scroll is regarded as one of the most important sources for the legend of Minamoto no Yorimitsu (also known as Raikō) and the Tsuchigumo, influencing many later artistic representations.

The Tsurugi-no-maki relates that Yorimitsu was suffering from malaria () when a strange monk, seven shaku (over 2 meters) tall, appeared and tried to bind him with rope. Despite his illness, Yorimitsu slashed at the monk with his famous sword, . The monk fled, leaving a trail of blood. The next day, Yorimitsu, accompanied by his four chief retainers (the ), followed the blood trail to a mound behind Kitano Shrine. There they discovered a giant yamagumo, four shaku (about 1.2 meters) across. They captured the spider, impaled it with an iron skewer, and exposed it by a riverbank. Yorimitsu subsequently recovered, and Hizamaru was renamed in honor of the event.

Tsuchigumo Sōshi

The 14th-century picture scroll Tsuchigumo Sōshi (土蜘蛛草紙, "Tale of the Earth Spider") offers a different, more elaborate version of the legend. It depicts Yorimitsu and his retainer Watanabe no Tsuna visiting Rendaino, a burial ground north of Kyoto. They encounter a flying skull, follow it to a dilapidated mansion, and are assailed by various yōkai. Near dawn, a beautiful woman attempts to deceive them, but Yorimitsu strikes her with his sword. She vanishes, leaving a trail of white blood. Following the trail into the mountains, they discover a cave inhabited by a colossal yamagumo, described as 20 jō (approximately 60 meters) long. After a fierce battle, they slay the spider. Cutting open its belly reveals 1,990 human skulls, and numerous small spiders emerge from its flanks, along with another 20 smaller skulls.

See also

  • Jorōgumo – Another spider yōkai in Japanese folklore.
  • Ryōmen Sukuna – Another figure from Japanese chronicles described as monstrous, possibly representing a rebellious force against the Yamato court.
  • List of legendary creatures from Japan

References

Citations

Works cited

Further reading

  • Aston, William George. Shinto: the way of the gods. Longmans, Green, and Co. (1905)
  • Brinkley, Frank and Dairoku Kikuchi. A history of the Japanese people from the earliest times to the end of the Meiji era. The Encyclopædia Britannica Co. (1915)
  • Horne, Charles Francis. The Sacred books and early literature of the East. Parke, Austin, and Lipscomb: (1917)
  • Monsters, Animals, and Other Worlds: A Collection of Short Medieval Japanese Tales. Edited by Keller Kimbrough and Haruo Shirane. New York Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press, 2018. pp. 23-30. Monsters, Animals, and Other Worlds: A Collection of Short Medieval Japanese Tales (Includes translation of Tsuchigumo Sōshi)
  • Reider, Noriko T. Japanese Demon Lore: Oni, From Ancient Times to the Present. Logan, Utah: Utah State University Press, 2010. pp. 165–169 (two examples of Tsuchigumo in modern media).
  • (In Spanish, discusses Yorimitsu and the Tsuchigumo)
  • Trench, K. Paul, translator. Nihongi: chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697: Volume 1. The Society. Trübner. (1896) (Translation by W.G. Aston)