Translatio imperii

is a historiographical concept that was prominent among medieval thinkers and intellectuals in Europe, but which originated from earlier concepts in antiquity. According to this concept, the notion of decline and fall of an empire is theoretically replaced by a natural succession from one empire to another. Translatio implies that an empire can metahistorically be transferred from hand to hand and place to place, from Troy to Romans and Greeks to Franks (both claiming to be Romans) and further on to Spain, and has therefore survived.

In classical antiquity, an authoritative user of this scheme was Virgil, who has been traditionally ranked as one of Rome's greatest poets. In his work Aeneid, which has been considered the national epic of ancient Rome, he linked the Rome in which he lived, reigned by its first emperor Caesar Augustus, with Troy. The discourse of translatio imperii may be traced from the ninth century to the fourteenth, and may be carried on into the sixteenth century or even further.

Definitions

French historian Jacques Le Goff (1924–2014) did describe the concept as "typical" for the Middle Ages for several reasons:

The idea of linearity of time and history was typical for the Middle Ages;
The idea typically also neglected simultaneous developments in other parts of the world (of no importance to medieval Europeans);
The idea didn't separate "divine" history from the history of "worldly power": medieval Europeans considered divine (supernatural) and material things as part of the same continuum, which was their reality. Also the causality of one reign necessarily leading to its successor was often detailed by the medieval chroniclers, and is seen as a typical medieval approach.

To be noted is that Le Goff in saying that, did refer to a very small group of rich and prosperous people living during the Middle Ages. For the largest part of the citizens, translatio imperii was unknown.

Otto of Freising (living in German region, 1114–1158): Rome → Franks → Lombards → Germans
Chrétien de Troyes (living in medieval France, 12th century): Greece → Rome → France
Snorri Sturluson (Prose Edda Prologue, Iceland/Norway, ): Troy → Thrúdheim, Thrace → Norway
Alfonso X of Castile (General Estoria, Castile, 13th century): Abraham → Egypt → Greece → Rome → Franks → Holy Roman Empire
Richard de Bury (England, 14th century): Athens → Rome → Paris → England
Dante Alighieri (Florence, <abbr>c.</abbr> 1265 – 1321) was strongly influenced by Virgil, who linked Rome's Caesar Augustus with Troy, most notably his Divine Comedy, in which Virgil appears as the author's guide through Hell and Purgatory. Dante's use of the Florentine dialect for this work rather than Latin influenced the course of literary developments in Europe.
The Laurentian poets (Florence, 15th century) were modelling Lorenzo de' Medici as a leader of Ancient Rome. This rhetorical process formed an important part of Medici propaganda, as it tried to legitimate and give prestige to his reign. The same propagandistic use of the scheme has been made on behalf of other late 15th-century rulers in Italy.
Ibrahim Pasha (Ottoman Empire, 1523–1536) Roman Empire → Eastern Roman Empire → Seljuk Empire → Sultanate of Rum → Ottoman Empire

Later, continued and reinterpreted by modern and contemporary movements and authors (some known examples):

Fifth Monarchists (England, 17th century): Caldeans (Babylonians) → Persians → Macedonian Empire → Rome → England (and the British Empire later)
António Vieira (Portugal, 17th century): Assyro-Caldeans (Babylonians) → Persians → Greeks → Romans → Portuguese Empire
Fernando Pessoa (Portugal, 20th century): Greece → Rome → Christianity → Europe → Portugal

Medieval and Renaissance authors often linked this transfer of power by genealogically attaching a ruling family to an ancient Greek or Trojan hero; this schema was modeled on Virgil's use of Aeneas (a Trojan hero) as progenitor of the city of Rome in his Aeneid. Continuing with this tradition, the twelfth-century Anglo-Norman authors Geoffrey of Monmouth (in his ) and Wace (in his ) linked the founding of Britain to the arrival of Brutus of Troy, son of Aeneas.

In a similar way, the French Renaissance author Jean Lemaire de Belges (in his ) linked the founding of Celtic Gaul to the arrival of the Trojan Francus (i.e. Astyanax), the son of Hector; and of Celtic Germany to the arrival of Bavo, the cousin of Priam; in this way he established an illustrious genealogy for Pepin and Charlemagne (the legend of Francus would also serve as the basis for Ronsard's epic poem, "").

From Troy to Rome

The Romans believed that they were descendants of Troy and this perceived genealogical connection meant a lot to them as it gave themselves a greater sense of legitimacy. A major aspect of the perceived connection and transfer from Troy to Rome comes from Virgil’s work the Aeneid. Virgil uses the concept of Translatio imperii and Translatio studii in his work to blend history and mythology into the grand story of Rome’s origin.)

In 802, Empress Irene was deposed by a conspiracy and replaced by Nikephoros I. She was exiled and died the following year.
, a peace treaty in 803 between the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne and Nikephoros I, Basileus of the Eastern Roman Empire.
Recognition of Charlemagne as Emperor (Basileus) in 812 by Emperor Michael I Rangabe of the Byzantine Empire (crowned on 2 October 811 by the Patriarch of Constantinople), after he reopened negotiations with the Franks. While acknowledging Charlemagne strictly as "Emperor", Michael only referred to himself as "Emperor of the Romans". In exchange for that recognition, Venice was returned to the Byzantine Empire.
On February 2, 962, Otto I was solemnly crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII. Ten days later at a Roman synod, Pope John XII, at Otto's desire, founded the Archbishopric of Magdeburg and the Bishopric of Merseburg, bestowed the pallium on the Archbishop of Salzburg and Archbishop of Trier, and confirmed the appointment of Rather as Bishop of Verona. The next day, the emperor issued a decree, the , in which he confirmed the Roman Church in its possessions, particularly those granted by the Donation of Pepin. On the other hand, the Pope had to accept that Otto and his heirs would have a vote in the nomination of popes as head of the Catholic Church and the Papal States, and he and his heirs had the position to overview the enforcement of law and order in the Papal states.
On April 972 14, Otto I married his son and heir Otto II to the Byzantine Princess Theophanu. Through their wedding contract, Otto was recognized as Emperor in the West, a title Theophanu later assumed together with her husband through the after his death.

From the Inca Empire to the Spanish Empire

Sayri Túpac, second Inca of Vilcabamba, after negotiating with the viceroy Andrés Hurtado de Mendoza on January 5, 1558, in Lima ceded the rights of his crown to the King of Castile, renouncing his claims as sovereign of the Inca Empire and converting to Catholicism; in exchange, he received a pardon from the "superior government", obtained titles to land and income, recognition of the primogeniture of his lineage, and obtaining the Encomienda del Valle de Yucay [Mayorazgo de Oropesa]. Later, his successor Titu Cusi Yupanqui, would ratify this transfer with the signing of the .

left|thumb|322x322px|One of the Efigies de los incas o reyes del Perú, in which the [[Kings of spain|Kings of Spain are portrayed as heirs to the rights of the Inca Emperors]]

This application of the Translatio Imperii, for the Kingdoms of Peru, was invoked as the legitimacy tool, by the Spanish Empire, for its domain in the Viceroyalty of Peru, while, from these treaties, the incorporation of the Tahuantinsuyo in the Spanish Monarchy, with the official recognition of the , which consider the Monarchs of Spain as Kings of Peru, which would encourage the loyalty and fidelity of the (especially the royalists from the Royal Army of Peru) towards the Spanish monarchy and its promotion of miscegenation.

Given this, the Kings of Spain would be the legitimate successors of the Sapa Incas, therefore, Carlos I of Spain would be succeeding Atahualpa as Emperor of the Kingdoms of Peru, not only in fact, but also in law. Which was referenced in multiple paintings of viceregal art (especially from the School of Cuzco and the Cathedral of Lima), such as the iconic Efigies de los incas o reyes del Perú, present in the Museum of Art of Lima, in which Atahualpa bestows his Scepter of Power to the Spanish Habsburgs (marked with a cross), or the painting by Juan Núñez Vela y Ribera, in the Copacabana monastery, where reference is made to the "poderosissimo Inga D. Carlos II Augustissimo Emperador de la América". Meanwhile, the King of Spain would flaunt his rights as Sapa Inca, through the title King of the West Indies, which is the sum of the rights of the Inca and Aztec crowns, which has been commemorated with the statues of the Aztec and Inca Emperors at the main entrance of the Royal Palace of Madrid.

This in turn gave guarantees to the Inca Nobility to have recognition of their titles (and traditions of their peoples) in Spanish law, considering themselves twinned with the Spanish Nobility, the indigenous nobility receiving multiple shields and privileges from the Crown. Authors like the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega would make a lot of reference to this Translatio imperii in his works.

The claims of Spanish rights in the Kingdoms of Peru is in this way: Pre-Inca Kingdoms and Andean civilizations → Incan Empire/Tahuantinsuyo → Christianity → Spanish Empire

The Rus' land from the Middle Dnieper to Suzdalia

A long-standing problem in the historiography of the medieval history of Kievan Rus', Vladimir-Suzdal and Muscovy, preceding the modern republics of Russia and Ukraine, is when usage of the term "Rus' land" (; ), which was initially associated with the Middle Dnieper (Dnipro) river valley around Kiev (modern Kyiv), shifted towards Vladimir-Suzdal, also known as "Suzdal land" or "Suzdalia". There is scholarly agreement that by the late 15th century, and perhaps earlier, the Daniilovichi princes of Moscow were presenting themselves as the legitimate dynastic successors to Kievan Rus', and the true representatives of the "Rus' land". The question is how much earlier this can be dated, because the evidence is ambiguous. In 2016, Charles J. Halperin summarised the scholarly debate so far:

Several scholars including previously used the 1950 Priselkov reconstruction of the Trinity Chronicle as evidence to date the (variously from the 1320s to the mid-14th century), but – by 2001 – Halperin changed his position (confirmed in 2010 after Serhii Plokhy (2006) explored the question) due to the unreliability of Priselkov's reconstruction. In his 2022 updated bundle of all previous articles about the Rus' land (published at Plokhy's suggestion), Halperin posited that the last time "Rus' land" meant the region around Kiev was in , when the Tale of the Destruction of the Rus' Land was written (probably in Kiev) during the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'. Conversely, by , at the accession of Ivan I Kalita as Prince of Moscow in 1340, "the of the Rus' Land to the Muscovite principality itself, or at the very least to the Northeast, was a ." Plokhy (2006) had argued this was too early, and the could not have taken place before the mid-15th century due to Donald Ostrowski in 1998 re-dating of the works of the Kulikovo cycle to after the 1440s, which Halperin (1999) rejected. Instead, Plokhy suggested tracing it to the Muscovite Codex of 1472, wherein an entry 1471 "may be regarded as one of the first expressions of the theory that postulated the transfer of power in the Rus' lands from Kyiv to Vladimir on the Kliazma and then to Moscow."

Notes

References

Bibliography

(review of Plokhy 2006, and a response to criticism)
(first published 2012 by Рукописные памятники Древней Руси [Manuscript monuments of ancient Rus'], Moscow).