thumb|260px|[[Enryaku-ji, the head temple of Tendai at Mount Hiei]]

, also known as the Tendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗, Tendai hokke shū, sometimes just Hokkeshū), is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition with significant esoteric elements that was officially established in Japan in 806 by the Japanese monk Saichō. The destruction of the head temple of Enryaku-ji by Oda Nobunaga in 1571, as well as the geographic shift of the capital away from Kyoto to Edo, ended Tendai's dominance, though it remained influential.

In Chinese and Japanese, its name is identical to Tiantai (meaning "Celestial Platform"), its parent Chinese Buddhist tradition. Both traditions emphasize the importance of the Lotus Sutra and revere the teachings of the Tiantai patriarchs, especially Zhiyi. In English, the Japanese romanization Tendai is used to refer specifically to the Japanese school. According to Hazama Jikō, the main characteristic of Tendai is its comprehensive and universalist spirit, which is based on the "One Great Perfect Teaching", the idea that "all the teachings of the Buddha are ultimately without contradiction and can be unified in one comprehensive and perfect system."

Other unique elements include an exclusive use of the bodhisattva precepts for ordination (without the Pratimokṣa), a practice tradition based on the "Four Integrated Schools": (Shikan (meditation), Pure Land, Tantra and Precepts), and an emphasis on the study of Chinese Esoteric Buddhist sources.

History

thumb|[[Mount Hiei in Spring from Umahashi over the Takano river]]

Foundation by Saichō

The teachings of the Chinese Tiantai school founded by Zhiyi (538–597 CE) had been brought to Japan as early as 754 by Jianzhen (Jp. Ganjin). However, Tiantai teachings did not take root until generations later, when the monk Saichō (767–822) joined the Japanese missions to Imperial China in 804 and founded Enryaku-ji on Mount Hiei. The future founder of Shingon Buddhism, Kūkai, also travelled on the same mission; however, the two were on separate ships, and there is no evidence they met in this period. After receiving teachings and initiations on Chan, Precepts and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, Saichō devoted much of his time to making accurate copies of Tiantai texts and studying under Dàosuì. By the sixth month of 805, Saichō had returned to Japan along with the official mission to China. Saichō was also influenced by his study of Huayan (Jp. Kegon) philosophy under (720–797), and this was his initial training before going to China.

Because of the Japanese imperial court's interest in Tiantai as well as esoteric Buddhism, Saichō quickly rose in prominence upon his return. He was asked by Emperor Kanmu (735–806) to perform various esoteric rituals, and Saichō also sought recognition from the Emperor for a new, independent Tendai school in Japan.

Disagreements with other schools

The remainder of Saichō's life was spent in heated debates with notable Yogācārins, particularly Tokuitsu, and maintaining an increasingly strained relationship with Kūkai, from whom he received initiations to broaden his understanding of esoteric Buddhism. The debates with Yogācārins were primarily centred on the doctrine of Ekayāna, 'the One School', found in the Lotus Sutra, which the Yogācārins saw as not being an ultimate teaching. This was known as the San-Itsu Gon-Jitsu Ronsō 'Ekayāna–Three Vehicle debate', and it had a great influence on Japanese Buddhism.

Saichō's efforts were also devoted to developing a Mahāyāna ordination platform that required the Bodhisattva Precepts of the Brahmajala Sutra only, and not the pratimokṣa of the Dharmaguptaka vinaya, which was traditionally used in East Asian monasticism. Saichō saw the precepts of the so-called Hinayana ('Small Vehicle') as no longer necessary.

By 864, Tendai monks were now appointed to the powerful sōgō with the naming of An'e (安慧) as the provisional vinaya master. Other examples include Enchin's appointment to the Office of Monastic Affairs in 883. While Saichō had opposed the Office during his lifetime, within a few generations disciples were now gifted with positions in the Office by the Imperial Family. By this time, Japanese Buddhism was dominated by the Tendai school to a much greater degree than Chinese Buddhism was by its forebear, the Tiantai.

Development of Tendai practice traditions

Philosophically, the Tendai school did not deviate substantially from the beliefs developed by the Tiantai school in China. However, Saichō had also transmitted numerous teachings from China that were not exclusively Tiantai but also included Zen, Pure Land Buddhism, Mikkyō, and Kyeyul ('Vinaya school') elements. The tendency to include a range of teachings became more marked in the doctrines of Saichō's successors, such as Ennin, Enchin and Annen.

After Saichō, the Tendai order underwent efforts to deepen its understanding of teachings collected by the founder, particularly esoteric Buddhism. Saichō had only received initiation in the Vajra Realm Mandala, and since the rival Shingon school under Kūkai had received deeper training, early Tendai monks felt it necessary to return to China for further initiation and instruction. Saichō's disciple Ennin went to China in 838 and returned ten years later with a more thorough understanding of esoteric, Pure Land, and Tiantai teachings.

Konryū Daishi Sōō (831–918), a student of Ennin, is another influential figure in Tendai. He is known for developing the ascetic practice of circumambulating Mount Hiei and living and practicing in the remote wilderness. This practice, which became associated with Acala (Fudō Myōō) and Sōō's hermitage at Mudō-ji, became quite influential in Tendai. A more elaborate and systematized practice based on Sōō's simple mountain asceticism developed over time, and came to be called kaihōgyō. This remains an important part of Tendai Buddhism today.

Annen (841–902?) is one of the most important post-Saichō Tendai thinkers. He wrote around a hundred works on Tendai doctrine and practice. According to Annen's theory of , all Buddhas are ultimately a single Buddha, all temporal moments are one moment, all pure lands are also just one pure land, and all teachings are interfused into one teaching.

According to Lucia Dolce, Annen "systematized earlier and contemporary doctrines elaborated in both streams of Japanese esoteric Buddhism, Tōmitsu (i.e., Shingon) and Taimitsu (Tendai)", "critically reinterpreted Kūkai's thought, offering new understandings of crucial esoteric concepts and rituals", and he also "elaborated theories that were to become emblematic of Japanese Buddhism, such as the realization of buddhahood by grasses and trees (sōmoku jōbutsu)" as well as original enlightenment thought.

Later Heian

thumb|Golden Hall of [[Mii-dera|Onjōji, also known as Mii-dera, a National Treasure of Japan]]

During the later Heian period, Ryōgen 良源 (912–985) was an influential figure. He was the 18th abbot of Enryakuji, the Tendai head temple on Mount Hiei, and was an influential politician closely tied to the Fujiwara clan, as well as a learned scholar. Due to his influence, the Tendai school became the dominant Buddhist tradition in Japanese intellectual life and at the imperial court in Kyoto. Due to Ryōgen's influence, Fujiwara family members also came to occupy important positions at Tendai temples. Ryōgen is also said to have hired an army to protect Mt. Hiei, and some scholars see him as contributing the development of the warrior monk phenomenon (sōhei). However, other scholars argue that warrior monks developed due to various other social and political pressures, such as the decline of the imperial bureaucratic state, the rise of temple estates, and the rise of noblemen joining the clergy.

Whatever the case, the late Heian age also saw increased violence among Buddhist schools and temples (and sub-schools within Tendai as well), with armed groups resorting to violence to resolve disputes between Buddhist temples.

Ryōgen's most influential disciples were Genshin (Eshin sōzu 942-1017) and Kakuun (Danna sōzu 957-1007). Chinese Pure Land chanting methods, such as Fazhao's five tone nembutsu (go-e nembutsu, 五会念仏) were also adopted into the Tendai tradition by figures like Ennin. In early Japanese Tendai Pure Land discourse, monks such as Zenyu and Senkan (918–984) embraced this practice and focused their teaching on Pure Land elements, seeing it as the most viable kind of practice for the age of mappo (Dharma Decline). For them, adopting Pure Land practices did not signify abandoning the traditional Tendai path, rather the Pure Land path was seen as a practical and accessible method for entering the path, especially for those who felt incapable of advanced spiritual cultivation in their present lives. This interpretation allowed Pure Land devotion to align with the broader Tendai tradition, reinforcing the belief that all beings possess the potential for buddhahood.

Genshin (942–1017), an influential student of Ryōgen, wrote the famous Ōjōyōshū (Essentials of Birth in the Pure Land), which influenced later Pure Land Japanese figures. His work built upon the foundational ideas established by earlier monks like Senkan, emphasizing nenbutsu practice as a viable and effective path toward enlightenment in the era of Dharma decline.]]

Although the Tendai sect flourished under the patronage of the Imperial House of Japan and the noble houses like the Fujiwara, by the end of the Heian period, it experienced an increasing breakdown in monastic discipline. This was partly caused by political entanglements with rival factions of the Genpei War, namely the Taira and Minamoto clans. Due to its patronage and growing popularity among the upper classes, the Tendai sect became not only respected, but also politically and even militarily powerful, with major temples having vast landholdings and fielding their own monastic armies of sōhei (warrior-monks).

In response to the perceived worldliness and elitism of the powerful Tendai school, a number of low-ranking Tendai monks became dissatisfied and began to teach radical new doctrines which focused on simpler, more popular practices. Soon, new schools of Buddhism emerged from this religious milieu. The major figures of "New Kamakura Buddhism"—Nichiren, Hōnen, Ippen, Shinran, Eisai and Dōgen—all initially trained as Tendai monks. Despite internal divisions, the Tendai establishment remained politically and militarily powerful throughout the Kamakura Period. Enryaku-ji maintained its network of warrior monks (sōhei) and its influence at the imperial court and among the aristocracy, even while internal divisions led to increasing doctrinal and institutional disputes.

Kamakura period Tendai also produced a number of important figures of its own, including Jien 慈圓 (1155–1225), known as a historian and a poet, who wrote the Gukanshō (a religious history of Japan) and numerous devotional poems. Hōjibō Shōshin 寶地房證眞 (active 1153–1214) was a major Buddhist intellectual in medieval Japanese Buddhism and the head of the Tendai curriculum at Mount Hiei. Shōshin wrote numerous works and commentaries, and is most known for his commentaries on the writings of Zhiyi, the Personal Notes on the Three Major Works of Tendai (Tendai sandaibu shiki 天台三大部私記). This is "the most detailed study on Tendai doctrine until the twentieth century", according to Matthew Don McMullen. Shōshin also wrote on esoteric Buddhism, which he interpreted in line with classical Tiantai doctrine, instead of seeing it as a separate form of Buddhism. Notably, Shōshin rejected the view that esoteric or mantrayana Buddhism was superior to the Tendai Mahāyāna teaching of the one vehicle.

Muromachi and Sengoku Periods (1333–1600)

Tendai maintained its prestige during the Muromachi period, but political instability and the weakening of the imperial court diminished its political influence. Tendai remained closely connected to the Ashikaga shogunate (1336–1573), and its doctrines influenced esoteric and Pure Land practices. However, the school's warrior monks were drawn into larger conflicts, particularly during the Ōnin War (1467–1477), which devastated Kyoto and disrupted religious institutions.

One response to the various conflicts of the time were reform movements aimed at restoring the bodhisattva precepts and reinforcing moral discipline among monks. Kōen (1263–1317) formulated a ritual known as kaikanjō (戒灌頂), which integrated the observance of precepts with elements drawn from esoteric Buddhism. Ejin (1281–1358) similarly advocated rigorous adherence to the precepts, gaining the respect and patronage of Emperor Go-Daigo. In the following century, Shinsei (眞盛 1443–1492) stressed the combined importance of precept observance and the recitation of the nenbutsu, an approach articulated as the “two gates of precepts and invocation” (kaishō nimon 戒称二門). Broadly speaking, however, the fourteenth through sixteenth centuries did not witness any major doctrinal innovations within Japanese Tendai.

thumb|Nobunaga's samurai sacking Enryakuji temple

Instead, the tradition experienced a severe crisis during the Sengoku period, when the wardlord Oda Nobunaga, seeking to break the political and military power of Tendai institutions, destroyed the Tendai headquarters on Mount Hiei, resulting in the deaths of many inhabitants. Despite this devastation, Tendai did not disappear from Japan, as it maintained strong institutional bases elsewhere. Even Mount Hiei itself was rapidly reconstructed with the backing of Toyotomi Hideyoshi and the Tokugawa shoguns. Particularly significant was the flourishing of Tendai institutions in the Kantō region, especially after Edo (present-day Tokyo) became the political and cultural center under the Tokugawa shogunate. Tenkai also worked to print and publish the entire Chinese Buddhist Canon comprising 6,323 fascicles. Completed in 1648, this edition became known as the Kan'ei-ji Edition (or Tenkai Edition). This printing project is considered one of the most significant achievements in Japanese printing history. Tenkai also served as the head of the Tendai temple complex at Nikkō, which later became Ieyasu’s mausoleum. Hagami, along with Etai Yamada (1900–1999) were two major Tendai figures of the 20th century. They widely promoted religious dialogue with other world religions and traveled widely. Furthermore, the Tendai Buddhist Institute in Canaan, New York, founded by Abbot Monshin Paul Naamon and his wife, Rev. Shumon Tamami Naamon, has become the first Tendai Buddhist training center authorized to train priests in North America.

Worldview

thumb|[[Śramaṇa Zhìyǐ (沙門智顗; Chih-i), the foundational philosopher in Tendai thought]]

According to Jiko Hazama, the Tendai Buddhist worldview advocates a comprehensive form of Buddhism which sees all Buddhist teachings as being unified under an inclusive reading of the ekayāna teaching of the Lotus Sutra. This holistic and inclusive form of Buddhism is based on the doctrinal synthesis of Tiantai Zhiyi, which was ultimately based on the Lotus Sutra.

Foundational Tendai philosophy

The thought of the Japanese Tendai school is founded on the classic Chinese Tiantai doctrines found in the works of patriarchs Zhìyǐ and Zhanran. These foundational doctrines include:

Saichō taught that there were "three kinds of Lotus Sutra". According to Jacqueline Stone, these can be explained as follows:

  • The Fundamental Lotus: "the one vehicle which represents the Buddha's single compassionate intent, underlying all his teachings, to lead all beings to buddhahood."
  • The Hidden and Secret Lotus: "those teachings in which, due to the immaturity of the Buddha's audience, this intention is not outwardly revealed."
  • The Lotus that was Preached Explicitly: The actual text of the Lotus Sutra.

Stone writes that Saichō saw all Buddhist teachings as being the true "Lotus Sutra" and he therefore attempted to integrate all Buddhist teachings he had studied within a single framework based on the Lotus Sutra<nowiki/>'s One Vehicle.

Later Tendai thinkers like Annen provided a new doctrinal classification system (based on Zhiyi's system) for Japanese Tendai. All Buddhist teachings are seen as being included into the following categories. The first major group are those teachings that rely on the three vehicles: The debates continued after Saichō's passing, with figures like Ryōgen and Genshin taking part in official court debates against Hossō scholars, and writing treatises defending the Tendai position.

Another element of Tendai buddha-nature thought was the notion that the phenomenal world, the world of our experiences, fundamentally is an expression of the Dharma. Tendai Buddhism claims that each and every sense phenomenon just as it is is the expression of Dharma. This idea comes from Zhanran's view of buddha nature as an all-pervasive reality that also includes insentient things (like mountains, rivers etc). Drawing on this, Saichō also argued that insentient things possess Buddha-nature and that the distinction between sentient and insentient is ultimately illusory, since buddha-nature pervades all things through the principle of mutual inclusion, in which each dharma realm contains all others. Thus for Saichō ultimate reality, the Dharmakaya, actively manifests in the phenomenal world as the world itself.

Hongaku

The medieval Tendai school was the locus of the development of the Japanese doctrine of hongaku 本覚 (innate or original enlightenment), which holds that all beings are enlightened inherently. This theory developed in Tendai from the cloistered rule era (1086–1185) through the Edo period (1688–1735). Scholars also refer to the doctrinal system associated with this idea as "original enlightenment thought". Stone defines this as the "array of doctrines and concepts associated with the proposition that all beings are enlightened inherently." This idea was introduced by Saichō, who held that this described certain advanced practitioners who had realized the fifth degree of identity, though this attainment was a rare thing. Saichō saw the story of the Dragon king's daughter in the Lotus Sutra<nowiki/>'s Devadatta chapter as evidence for this direct path (jikidō) to Buddhahood which did not require three incalculable eons (as was taught in some forms of Mahayana Buddhism), but could be achieved in three lives or even one lifetime. Although this theory became prominent on Mount Hiei, its conceptual roots can be traced to the Chinese Tiantai tradition, particularly its teaching of the two gates: the 'gate of the essential teaching' (benmen 本門) and the 'gate of the trace' (jimen 迹門), as outlined in the Lotus Sūtra. Esoteric Buddhism also played a key role in shaping this theory by distinguishing between Dainichi's body of fundamental nature (honji-shin 本地身). This framework positioned all buddhas, bodhisattvas, wisdom kings, and celestial beings as manifestations of Dainichi (Mahavairocana). Other sutras are also studied, such as the Brahmajāla Sūtra (Bonmō-kyō), which provides the school with its bodhisattva precepts.

  • Perfect or Round (En) teachings, which includes a broad range of practices including the study of Mahayana sutras and Tendai doctrine (Tendai no kyōgi), as well as various ritual practices, such as the Lotus Repentance Ritual (Hokke Senbo). It also includes Lotus Sutra devotional practices, such as those described in the Hokke Genki, which often center around the recitation of the Lotus Sutra. A common practice still observed today is the Method for Prostrating to the Dharma Flower Sūtra (禮法華經儀式), which involves prostrations to each character of the sūtra in long (the entire sutra), medium (selecting one chapter of the text), or short forms. The short form focuses on prostrating to the characters of the sūtra's title, often accompanied by a dedication chant.
  • Esoteric practices (Mitsu or Mikkyō 密教) which make use of mantras, mudras and mandalas from tantras like the Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra and Yixing's commentary
  • Meditation (Zen), this is not the practice of "Zen Buddhism", but merely signifies Tendai teachings on "meditation" (dhyāna), including Śamatha-vipaśyanā meditation (Shikan 止観, "calming-insight") based on Zhiyi's Móhē zhǐguān and to a lesser extent, his other meditation works
  • Precepts (Kai), in particular the Bodhisattva Precepts based on the Lotus Sutra and the Brahmajāla Sūtra.
  • Pure Land (Jōdo 浄土) practices focused on Amitabha, especially the recitation of the Buddha's name (nembutsu), based on the Pure Land sutras and Treatise on the Pure Land by Vasubandhu

To this, one can also add other elements that became integrated to Tendai practice, including Shinto and Shugendō practices. It is due to this syncretic aspect of Tendai that it is sometimes termed Integrated Buddhism (総合佛教 Sōgōbukkyō). Saichō emphasized the importance of the Four Samādhis in his Kanjō Tendai-shū Nenbun Gakushō-shiki (Regulations for Tendai School Annual Ordinands), and he sought to establish special halls as a place for these practices. The Four Samādhis are foundational to Tendai Buddhism and are designed to cultivate deep states of meditative absorption (samādhi).

The Four-fold Samādhi (四種三昧 shishu-zammai) is outlined as follows:

  • Constantly Sitting Samādhi (常坐三昧, Jōza Zanmai): This practice involves seated meditation (zazen) for a period of 90 days. The practitioner remains in a seated posture, focusing on meditation without interruption. This practice is rooted in the Mañjusri Prajñaparamita Sutra and emphasizes the cultivation of inner calm and mental clarity.
  • Constantly Walking Samādhi (常行三昧, Jōgyō Zanmai): This involves walking meditation for 90 days, typically around a statue of the Buddha Amitābha or within a designated meditation space. The practitioner maintains mindfulness while moving. This practice is based on the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sutra, which emphasizes the contemplation of Amitābha and recitation of his name. It also influenced the development of Pure Land Buddhism in East Asia.
  • Half-Walking and Half-Sitting Samādhi (半行半坐三昧, Hangyō Hanza Zanmai): This practice alternates between periods of seated meditation and walking meditation, seamlessly transitioning between the two without breaks. The duration can vary, with some practices lasting 21 days (based on the Lotus Sutra) or 7 days (based on the Great Correct and Equal Dhāranī Sutra). This practice is often incorporated into rituals like the Hokke Senbo (法華懺法, Lotus Repentance Ritual), where practitioners alternate between sitting and walking while chanting the Lotus Sutra and other texts.
  • Neither Walking nor Sitting Samādhi (非行非坐三昧, Hikō Hiza Zanmai): This practice is not confined to a specific posture or duration. It encompasses all forms of meditation that do not fit into the other three categories, allowing for flexibility in practice. This practice represents the ultimate goal of integrating meditation into every moment of daily life, emphasizing the universality of meditative practice beyond structured forms.

Other forms of Tendai meditation include the famous hiking meditation practice of Kaihōgyō (回峰行 Circling the mountain).

However, both meditation on the Pure Land (kansō nenbutsu 観想念仏) and recitation of the Buddha's name (shōmyō nenbutsu 称名念仏) became an integral part of Pure Land practices in the Tendai tradition. In addition to the five-tone nembutsu brought back from China, Ennin also integrated a special monastic training program called the originally promulgated by Zhiyi. In this practice, monks spend 90 days in retreat, circumambulating a statue of Amitābha constantly reciting his name. Taimitsu, as a form of East Asian Esoteric Buddhism, holds that by making use of mantras, mudras, and mandalas (known as "the three mysteries"), one is able to attain Buddhahood within this very body. Eventually, these esoteric rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the teachings of the Lotus Sutra, which was also seen as an esoteric sutra (but only "in principle", not "in practice", since it did not include the practice of the three mysteries). As a result, Tendai esoteric ritual bears much in common with Shingon, though some of the underlying doctrines and practices differ. Regarding textual basis, while Shingon mainly uses the Mahavairocana Tantra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra (seeing these as the highest and most superior texts), Tendai uses a larger corpus of texts, including the Lotus Sutra and esoteric Lotus Sutra texts.

Later Tendai developments would also make the Lotus Sutra a full "Practice Esotericism" (Jimitsu) sutra through the development of esoteric practices and texts that placed the Lotus on the same level as the tantrism of the Mahavairocana sutra. To defend this view, Tendai scholars pointed to passages in the Lotus Sutra itself, such as when the sutra refers to itself as "the secret essential of the buddhas" and "the secret treasure of the Thus-Come One". They also relied on the interpretations of Yixing. The most important Chinese sources for this tradition are Yixing's (683–727) Darijing Shu (Commentary on the Mahāvairocana Sutra), which integrates Tiantai ideas with Chinese mantrayana, and the Ritual Manual for the Contemplation of the Lotus Sutra (Fahua guanzhi yigui, 法華経観智儀軌), an esoteric manual. This manual describes a deity yoga practice based on the Lotus Sutra which relies on reciting passages and mantras from the sutra, and arranging a ritual altar and a Lotus Maṇḍala. The Lotus Contemplation Manual derives from Amoghavajra's circle and was likely composed by him or his disciples.

Saichō’s rejection of the Hīnayāna vinaya precepts stemmed from his understanding of the Lotus Sutra as the ultimate expression of the Buddha's teachings. In his biography, Eizan Daishi den, Saichō expressed his commitment to abandoning the 250 Hīnayāna precepts and focused on the bodhisattva path. His interpretation of the Lotus Sutra, particularly in the "Comfortable Practices" chapter, provided a basis for rejecting śrāvaka practices and precepts. Saichō’s reforms eventually led to the development of the "Perfect-Sudden Precepts", which emphasized the inherent Buddha-nature in all beings and allowed for a more flexible approach to monastic discipline.

The bodhisattva precepts were thus seen in Tendai as being based on the Lotus Sutra's teaching that all beings have the potential for Buddhahood and that they have a fundamental goodness, or Buddha-nature. These various Chinese ideas about the integration of practice and precepts were integrated into Saichō's view of the "Perfect and Sudden Precepts" (Endonkai).

During the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, Tendai monks such as Ninkū (1307–1388) and Annen (841–?) further developed the concept of the Perfect-Sudden Precepts. Annen, for example, argued that the precepts were rooted in the non-dual nature of reality, suggesting that even actions traditionally considered evil could be seen as expressions of the precepts if performed with the right intention. This interpretation, while controversial, highlighted the Tendai emphasis on the transformative power of the Lotus Sutra and its ability to reveal the ultimate truth of the Buddha's teachings.

Tendai and Shinto

thumb|Hie Taisha, a Sannō Shintō shrine on Mount Hiei Tendai doctrine allowed Japanese Buddhists to reconcile Buddhist teachings with the native religious beliefs and practices of Japan (now labeled "Shinto"). In the case of Shinto, the difficulty is the reconciliation of the pantheon of Japanese gods (kami), as well as with the myriad spirits associated with places, shrines or objects, with Buddhist teachings. These gods and spirits were initially seen as local protectors of Buddhism.

Sannō Shintō 山王神道 was a specifically Tendai branch of syncretic Buddhist-Shinto religious practice, which revered kamis called the Mountain Kings (Sannō) or Sanno Sansei 山王三聖 (The Three Sacred [Deities] of Sanno) and was based on Hie Taisha 日吉大社 a shrine on Mount Hiei.

Art and aesthetics

thumb|Shunzei reciting a poem

The classic Buddhist understanding of the Four Noble Truths posits that craving for pleasure, worldly desire and attachment must be cut off to put an end to suffering (dukkha). In early Buddhism, the emphasis, especially for monastics, was on avoiding activities that might arouse worldly desires, including many artistic endeavors like music and performance arts. This tendency toward rejecting certain popular art forms created a potential conflict with mainstream East Asian cultures.

However, later Mahayana views developed a different emphasis which embraced all the arts. In Japan, certain Buddhist rituals (which were also performed in Tendai) grew to include music and dance, and these became very popular with the people. Doctrinally, these performative arts were seen as skillful means (hōben, Skt. upaya) of teaching Buddhism. Monks specializing in such arts were called yūsō ("artistic monks"). The writing of religious poetry was also a major pursuit among certain Tendai as well as Shingon figures, like the Shingon priest Shukaku and the Tendai monk Jien (1155–1225). These poets met together to discuss poetry in poetry circles (kadan). According to Deal and Ruppert, "Shingon, Tendai and Nara cloisters had a great impact on the development of literary treatises and poetry houses." According to William R. LaFleur, the development of yūgen aesthetic theory was also influenced by the Tendai practice of shikan meditation. According to LaFleur, for Shunzei's poetics, the beauty of yūgen manifests a deep tranquility which reflects and is akin to shikan practice. This link is asserted by Shunzei in his Kurai futeisho. These poets also understood the depth of yūgen through the holistic Tendai metaphysics of interfusion.

  • Nāgārjuna (3rd century CE)
  • Huiwen (d.u.), who is said to have read Nāgārjuna's works, practiced accordingly, and then had a direct insight into the master's Dharma, thus initiating the Chinese Tiantai lineage
  • Nanyue Huisi (515-577), a Meditation Master and Lotus Sūtra specialist who was Zhiyi's teacher
  • Tiantai Zhiyi (538–597), the most important figure of the Tiantai school who wrote the foundational treatises of the tradition
  • Guanding 561–632), Zhiyi's student, he edited and compiled the main treatises of Zhiyi
  • Zhiwei (?–680)
  • Huiwei (634–713)
  • Xuanlang (673-754)
  • Zhanran (711-782), the second most important Chinese Tiantai master, he wrote some key commentaries to Zhiyi's three major works
  • Daosui (806-820) and Xingman (?–823), both students of Zhanran and teachers of Saichō

Japanese Ancestors

The Japanese Tendai founder Saichō (最澄, 767–822) was a student of the last two patriarchs on the list, Daosui (806-820) and Xingman (?–823), both of whom studied under Zhanran. Saichō received Tiantai teachings and texts from them at Guoqing temple on Mt. Tiantai. Saichō also studied Chinese Esoteric Buddhism under two Chinese esoteric masters (ācāryas): Shunxiao and Weixiang, from whom he received initiation into the dual-realm mandalas. Furthermore, Saichō received Chan (Zen) teachings in China from the Oxhead (Jp. Gozu) school and Northern schools. He was a student of the Oxhead master Shunian (Shukunen), who resided at Chanlinsi (Zenrinji) Temple.

A number of notable monks contributed to Tendai thought and its history after Saichō, including:

  • Gishin (義真, 781-833) – The second of the Tendai School, who travelled with Saichō to China and ordained alongside him. He is the author of the Collected Teachings of the Tendai Lotus School (Tendai Hokkeshū Gishū)
  • Kōjō (光定, 779- 854) – A direct disciple of Saichō as well as Kūkai. He helped establish the new ordination platform on Mount Hiei.
  • Ennin (円仁, 794-864) – A direct disciple of Saichō who traveled to China to study further, who was the first to write scholastic works on the union of esoteric practices with exoteric Tendai School theories (this merger is now known as "Taimitsu"). He also promoted Chinese nianfo practices.
  • Enchin (円珍, 814–891) – Gishin's successor, junior to Ennin. He traveled to China and studied further esoteric teachings with different masters there. He then worked to assimilate esoteric buddhism to Tendai, and was also a notable administrator.
  • Annen (安然, 841–889?) - Ennin's disciple and successor to Henjō. An influential thinker who's known having finalized the assimilation of esoteric and exoteric buddhism within Tendai.
  • Sō-ō (相應, 831-918), who developed the kaihōgyō ("circling the mountain")
  • Ryōgen (良源, 912–985) – Annen's successor, and skilled politician who helped ally the Tendai School with the Fujiwara clan.
  • Genshin (源信, 942–1017) – Famous for his writings on Pure Land Buddhism, particularly his Ōjōyōshū. Influenced Hōnen's Jōdo-shū tradition and later Tendai Pure Land.
  • Sengaku (1203 – c. 1273) – a Tendai scholar and literary critic, who authored an influential commentary on the Man'yōshū, the oldest extant Japanese poetry.
  • Shinsei Shōnin (1443–1495) – Founder of the Tendai Shinsei school, who promoted precepts and Nembutsu practice.
  • Tenkai (天海, 1536–1643) – a Tendai , who served as an entrusted advisor of Tokugawa Ieyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa shogunate.

Founders of new Kamakura schools

During the Kamakura period, numerous Tendai monastics founded new schools of Japanese Buddhism, today known as the schools of New "Kamakura Buddhism". All of them were initially ordained and trained at the Tendai center on Mount Hiei. Key figures include:

  • Hōnen Shōnin (1133–1212): Founder of the Jōdo-shū school, who spread the Nembutsu practice based on Amida Buddha's Primal Vow.
  • Eisai Zenji (1141–1215): Founder of the Rinzai Zen school, who introduced Linji Zen to Japan after studying in China.
  • Shinran Shōnin (1173–1262): Founder of the Jōdo Shinshū school, who emphasized salvation through Amida Buddha's Other-Power.
  • Dōgen Zenji (1200–1253): Founder of the Japanese Sōtō Zen school, who taught shikan taza (just sitting) meditation.
  • Nichiren Shōnin (1222–1282): Founder of the Nichiren school, who propagated exclusive devotion to the Lotus Sutra.

See also

  • Enryaku-ji, the headquarters of Tendai Buddhism on Mount Hiei
  • Hongaku
  • Kaihōgyō
  • Nichiren Buddhism, which developed the Tendai emphasis on the Lotus Sutra into a distinctive Japanese Buddhist school
  • Tiantai Buddhism, the Chinese sect that Tendai developed from

Notes

References

  • Chappell, David W. (1987). "Is Tendai Buddhism Relevant to the Modern World?", Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 1987 14/2–3, pp 247–266.
  • Covell, Stephen (2001). "Living Temple Buddhism in Contemporary Japan: The Tendai Sect Today", Comparative Religion Publications. Paper 1. (Dissertation, Western Michigan University)
  • Groner, Paul. Saichō: The Establishment of the Japanese Tendai School. University of Hawaii Press 2000.
  • Matsunaga, Daigan; Matsunaga, Alicia (1996), Foundation of Japanese Buddhism, Vol. 1: The Aristocratic Age, Los Angeles; Tokyo: Buddhist Books International.
  • Matsunaga, Daigan, Matsunaga, Alicia (1996), Foundation of Japanese Buddhism, Vol. 2: The Mass Movement (Kamakura and Muromachi Periods), Los Angeles; Tokyo: Buddhist Books International, 1996.
  • McMullin, Neil (1984). The Sanmon-Jimon Schism in the Tendai School of Buddhism: A Preliminary Analysis, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 7 (1), 83–105
  • Stone Jacqueline 1999. Original Enlightenment and the Transformation of Medieval Japanese Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, HI, .
  • Swanson, Paul L. (1986). "T'ien-t'ai Studies in Japan", Cahiers d'Extrême-Asie 2 (2), 219–232
  • Ziporyn, Brook (2004). "Tiantai School" in Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Robert E. Buswell, Ed., McMillan USA, New York, NY, .

Primary sources in translation

  • Chen, Shuman. "The Liberation of Matter: Examining Jingxi Zhanran's Philosophy of the Buddha-Nature of Insentient Beings in Tiantai Buddhism." PhD diss., Northwestern University, 2014. (Contains a translation of the Adamantine Scalpel by Zhanran)
  • Yoshiko Kurata Dykstra (trans.) (1987). Miraculous Tales of the Lotus Sutra from Ancient Japan: The Dainihonkoku Hokekyōkenki of Priest Chingen. University of Hawaii Press.
  • Dharmamitra, Bhiksu (Trans.) (2020). The Essentials of Buddhist Meditation. Kalavinka Press.
  • Dharmamitra, Bhiksu (Trans.) (2017). The Six Dharma Gates to the Sublime. Kalavinka Press.
  • Kubo, T., Longan, J. M., Abbott, T., Ichishima, M., & Chappell, D. W. (Trans.). (2006). Tendai Lotus Texts. BDK English Tripitaka Series.
  • Ichishima, Masao (1983). Tʻien-tʻai Buddhism: An Outline of The Fourfold Teachings by Ch'egwan, Buddhist Translation Seminar of Hawaii.
  • Pruden, L., & Swanson, P. L. (Trans.). (1995). The Collected Teachings of the Tendai Lotus School. BDK English Tripitaka Series.
  • Pruden, L. M., & Rhodes, R. (Trans.). (1994). The Essentials of the Eight traditions, and The Candle of the Latter Dharma. BDK English Tripitaka Series.
  • Reishauer, Edwin O. Ennin's Diary, The Record of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1955.
  • Reischauer, A. K. Genshin's Ojo Yoshu:  Collected Essays on Birth Into the Pure Land  (Translation of Chapters 1 and 2)
  • Swanson, Paul L. (trans. and ed.) (2018). Clear Serenity, Quiet Insight: T’ien-t’ai Chih-i's Mo-ho Chih-kuan. 3 vols. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press.
  • Swanson, Paul. L. (1989). Foundations of T’ien T’ai philosophy: The flowering of the two truth theory in Chinese Buddhism. Jain Publishing Company. (Contains a partial translation of the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra by Zhiyi)
  • Tam, Lum Wai (1986). "A Study and Translation on the Kuan-hsin-lun of Chih-i (538-597) and its Commentary by Kuan-ting (561-632)"
  • Thich Thien Tam (trans.). Ten Doubts about Pure Land by Tien Tai Patriarch Chih I
  • Shih, Miao Guang. Annotated Translation of "Chapter on Bringing Together the Teachings of Tiantai and The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana" (by Siming Zhili)
  • California Tendai Buddhists California, North America
  • 台宗法蔵 - Chohoji Wakayama, Japan
  • Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with userID "guest")
  • Enryakuji Hieizan Main Temple of Tendai-shu, Kyoto, Japan
  • Great River Tendai Sangha - Washington, DC, North America
  • History of Tendai lineages up through the end of the Heian Period, Jodo Shu Research Institute
  • Kongosan Eigenji California, North America
  • Tendai Buddhist Institute - New York, North America
  • Tendai UK Hampshire, United Kingdom
  • Tendai Young Buddhist Association Japan
  • Tenryuzanji Trento, Italy
  • Williams archive - Tendai Buddhism (holding page)