The Tampico Affair began as a minor incident involving United States Navy sailors and the Mexican Federal Army loyal to Mexican dictator General Victoriano Huerta. On April 9, 1914, nine sailors had come ashore to secure supplies and were detained by Mexican forces. Commanding Admiral Henry Mayo demanded that the US sailors be released, and that Mexico issue an apology, raise and salute the US flag, and perform a 21-gun salute. Mexico promptly released the sailors, but refused the demand for a salute and colors. US President Woodrow Wilson backed the demand, and the conflict escalated when the Americans occupied the port city of Veracruz for more than six months. This contributed to the fall of Huerta, who resigned in July 1914. Since the US had not had diplomatic relations with Mexico since Huerta's seizure of power in 1913, the ABC powers Argentina, Brazil, and Chile offered to mediate the conflict, in the Niagara Falls peace conference, held in Canada. The American occupation of Veracruz caused widespread anti-American sentiment.

Background

In the midst of the Mexican Revolution, General Victoriano Huerta became President of Mexico following a coup to oust the democratically-elected president, Francisco I. Madero. Opposition to Huerta grew from the forces of peasant leader Emiliano Zapata in the state of Morelos and the rapid advance of the Northern opposition Constitutionalists under the leadership of Governor of Coahuila Venustiano Carranza. By March 26, 1914, Carranza's forces were from the prosperous coastal oil town of Tampico, Tamaulipas. There was a large settlement of US citizens there due to the immense investment by US firms in the local oil industry. Several US Navy warships commanded by Rear Admiral Henry T. Mayo were deployed off the coast for the stated purpose of protecting US citizens and property.

By the spring of 1914, relations between the US and Mexico were strained. US President Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize the presidency of Mexican General Victoriano Huerta, who came to power by a coup d'état, with rebel General Félix Díaz, a nephew of ex-President Porfirio Díaz, had signed the Embassy Pact with the approval of US Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson, who had since been removed by the president.

Mayo's Fifth Division of the Atlantic Fleet was in Tampico to protect American lives and interest. Ships at his disposal included the battleships and and cruisers and . US interests included the Standard Oil refinery at Arbol Grande, other petroleum properties at Doña Cecilia, and associated American families and homes nearby. Although Tampico was besieged by Constitutionalist forces, relations between the US forces and Huerta's federal garrison remained amicable. Mayo's flagship, the gunboat , honored a request of the Mexican government and fired a 21-gun salute to the Mexican flag three times on 2 April. This was in commemoration of the capture of Puebla from the French in 1867 by General Porfirio Díaz. Additionally, sailors from the US gunboat and two cruisers, anchored off Tampico in the Pánuco River, went ashore each day to play baseball.

Max Tyron informed Capt. Earle and Admiral Mayo aboard the Dolphin, and Mayo ordered Earle to seek his men's release under strong protest. Earle, accompanied by Clarence Miller, met with Zaragoza who apologized, explaining his men were "evidently ignorant of the first laws of war." Within an hour of their arrest, the whaleboat had returned to Dolphin. Ensign Copp was faulted by Mayo for allowing his men to be taken from a US vessel. Mayo viewed the incident as an insult to US sovereignty, requiring reparation. Mayo had Commander William A. Moffett deliver a note to Zaragoza stating, "taking men from a boat flying the American flag is a hostile act, not to be excused." Mayo further demanded a "formal disavowal", that the responsible officer "receive severe punishment," and "that you hoist the American flag in a prominent position on shore and salute it with 21 guns, which salute will be duly returned by this ship." in 1914]]

Nelson J. O'Shaughnessy, the US Chargé d'Affaires ad interim On the Pacific Coast of Mexico, US Naval units were monitoring the fight between Huerta's forces and the rebels while they protected US citizens and interests. In Ensenada, Baja California, US Consul Claude E. Guyant and 250 of his fellow citizens were forced to seek safety in the US consulate building, as Mexican authorities were powerless to control anti-American demonstrations that had erupted on April 23. Guyant cabled Washington, "Have taken refuge in consulate. Situation critical. Send warship immediately." USS Cheyenne was sent from San Diego, California, to Ensenada with orders to protect US lives at any cost, including capturing the port if necessary. , en route to Mazatlan, diverted course to Ensenada to assist Cheyenne. They were to evacuate Guyant and other Americans. The welfare of approximately 50,000 US citizens living in Mexico was affected by the invasion of Veracruz. Refugee camps were set up in San Diego, Texas, and New Orleans to receive the Americans. Ultimately, the US military transport ship USS sailed from San Francisco in early May and made stops at numerous ports on the west coast of Mexico to pick up additional American refugees. USS Iris also picked up numerous American refugees during May, including Clement Edwards, the US consul at Acapulco. By May 4, a total of 71 US Navy ships were operating in Mexican waters.

In January 1917, Germany sent the so-called Zimmermann Telegram, which implied that a Mexican alliance with Germany against the US would result in Mexico regaining territory taken from it by the US in prior wars and that Germany's forthcoming unrestricted submarine warfare campaign would guarantee defeat of the British and French. The British interception of Zimmermann's telegram and the German unrestricted submarine warfare against US merchant ships soon afterward, were effectively both final justifications that President Wilson needed to request a declaration of war against Germany, in April 1917.

Anti-American sentiment in Mexico from the Tampico incident was the chief reason that the Mexican government remained neutral in World War I. Mexico refused to participate with the US military excursion in Europe and granted full guarantees to German companies for keeping their operations open, specifically in Mexico City.

President Wilson considered another military invasion of Veracruz and Tampico in 1917–1918, to take control of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the shortest overland route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and the Tampico oil fields. The relatively new Mexican president, Venustiano Carranza, threatened to destroy the oil fields in case the Marines landed there.

See also

  • Mexico in World War I
  • United States involvement in the Mexican Revolution

References

  • Wilson "exasperated by... the latest in a line of Mexican incidents"
  • Wilson's address to Congress (20 April 1914)