Sultan

thumb|[[Suleiman the Magnificent, the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire|281x281px]]

Sultan (; ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who claimed almost full sovereignty (i.e., not having dependence on any higher ruler) without claiming the overall caliphate, or to refer to a powerful governor of a province within the caliphate. The adjectival form of the word is "sultanic", and the state and territories ruled by a sultan, as well as his office, are referred to as a sultanate ( '<span style="margin-left:2px">)</span>.

The term is distinct from king ( '), though both refer to a sovereign ruler. The use of "sultan" is restricted to Muslim countries, where the title carries religious significance, contrasting with the more secular king, which is used in both Muslim and non-Muslim countries.

Brunei, Malaysia and Oman are the only sovereign states which retain the title "sultan" for their monarchs. In some places the title has been replaced by "king" by contemporary hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law. A notable example is Morocco, whose monarch changed his title from sultan to king in 1957.

Etymology

The word sultan comes from the Arabic term sultan, which in classical Arabic denotes authority, power, or legitimate rule. In early Arabic usage the term referred to authority itself rather than a specific office or ruler. Only later did the word come to denote a sovereign who exercised such authority.

History of the term

The word derives from the Arabic and Semitic root salaṭa "to be hard, strong". The noun sulṭān initially designated a kind of moral authority or spiritual power (as opposed to political power), and it is used in this sense several times in the Qur'an.

In the early Muslim world, ultimate power and authority was theoretically held by the caliph, who was considered the leader of the caliphate. The increasing political fragmentation of the Muslim world after the 8th century, however, challenged this consensus. Local governors with administrative authority held the title of amīr (, traditionally "commander" or "emir", later also "prince") and were appointed by the caliph, but in the 9th century some of these became de facto independent rulers who founded their own dynasties, such as the Aghlabids and Tulunids. Towards the late 10th century, the term "sultan" begins to be used to denote an individual ruler with practically sovereign authority, although the early evolution of the term is complicated and difficult to establish. This combination thus elevated the sultan's religious or spiritual authority, in addition to his formal political authority.

In Kazakh Khanate, a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty (a direct descendants of Genghis Khan) elected by clans, i.e. a kind of prince. The best of sultans was elected as khan by people at Kurultai.

Military rank

In a number of post-caliphal states under Mongol or Turkic rule, there was a feudal type of military hierarchy. These administrations were often decimal (mainly in larger empires), using originally princely titles such as khan, malik, amir as mere rank denominations.

In the Persian empire, the rank of sultan was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day captain in the West; socially in the fifth-rank class, styled 'Ali Jah.

Current sultans

Sultans of sovereign states

Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah, Sultan of Brunei
Sultan Haitham bin Tariq, Sultan of Oman (authentically referred to as Hami), since 1744 (assumed the formal title of Sultan in 1861)

Sultans within federal monarchies

Sultan Ibrahim Ismail, Sultan of Johor
Sultan Sallehuddin, Sultan of Kedah
Sultan Muhammad V, Sultan of Kelantan
Al-Sultan Abdullah Ri'ayatuddin, Sultan of Pahang
Sultan Nazrin Shah, Sultan of Perak
Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah, Sultan of Selangor
Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin, Sultan of Terengganu

Sultan with executive power within republics

border|23px Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X, Sultan and Governor of Yogyakarta

Former sultans and sultanates

Sultanates in the Balkans & Anatolia

Sultanate of Rum
Ottoman Empire

Caucasus

Elisu Sultanate and a few others. A sultan ranked below a khan.

Levant & Egypt

thumb|upright=0.7|[[Tuman Bay II, last of the Mamluk Sultans]]

Abbasid Caliphate
Seljuk Empire (de jure)
Emirate of Damascus (de jure)
Emirate of Aleppo (de jure)
Zengid dynasty (de jure)
Nur al-Din Zengi
Ayyubid Sultans
Mamluk Sultans
Ottoman Imposters
Hain Ahmed Pasha (self proclaimed)
Ali Bey al-Kabir (as shaykh-al-balad)
Abu al-Dhahab (as shaykh-al-balad)
The title of Sultan of Egypt was later restored by the Muhammad Ali dynasty, and was used between the 19th of December 1914 and the 16th of March 1922 during the British protectorate

Arabia

in present-day Yemen, various small sultanates of the defunct Aden Protectorate and South Arabia:
:Audhali, Fadhli, Haushabi, Kathiri, Lahej, Lower Aulaqi, Lower Yafa, Mahra, Qu'aiti, Subeihi, Upper Aulaqi, Upper Yafa and the Wahidi sultanates
in present-day Saudi Arabia:
Sultans of Nejd
Sultans of the Hejaz

Maghreb

in Algeria: Sultanate of Tuggurt, Sultans of Tlemcen

thumb|upright=0.7|Sultan [[Abd al-Hafid of Morocco]]

in Morocco, until Mohammed V changed the style to Malik (king) on August 14, 1957, maintaining the subsidiary style Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful)

Sub-saharan Africa

In Cameroon:
Bamoun (Bamun, 17th century, founded uniting 17 chieftaincies) 1918 becomes a sultanate, but in 1923 re-divided into the 17 original chieftaincies.
Bibemi, founded in 1770 – initially styled lamido
Mandara Sultanate, since 1715 (replacing Wandala kingdom); 1902 part of Cameroon
Rey Bouba Sultanate founded 1804
in the Central African Republic:
Bangassou created ; 14 June 1890 under Congo Free State protectorate, 1894 under French protectorate; 1917 Sultanate suppressed by the French.
Dar al-Kuti – French protectorate since December 12, 1897
Rafai Sultanate, April 8, 1892, under Congo Free State protectorate, March 31, 1909, under French protectorate; 1939 Sultanate suppressed
Zemio established; December 11, 1894, under Congo Free State protectorate, April 12, 1909, under French protectorate; 1923 Sultanate suppressed
in Chad:
Baguirmi (main native title: Mbang)
Wada'i (main native title: Kolak), successor state to Birgu
Dar Sila (actually a wandering group of tribes)
in Niger: Arabic alternative title of the following autochthonous rulers:
the Amenokal of the Aïr confederation of Tuareg
the Sultanate of Agadez
the Sarkin Damagaram since the 1731 founding of the Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder)
in Nigeria most monarchies previously had native titles, but when most in the north converted to Islam, Muslim titles were adopted, such as emir and sometimes sultan.
in Borno (alongside the native title Mai)
since 1817 in Sokoto, the suzerain (also styled Amir al-Mu´minin and Sarkin Musulmi) of all Fulbe jihad states and premier traditional Muslim leader in the Sahel (according to some once a caliph)

thumb|366x366px|Portrait of [[Mohamoud Ali Shire, the 20th Sultan of the Somali Sultanate of Warsangali]]

Ajuran Sultanate, in southern Somalia and eastern Ethiopia
Adal Sultanate, in western Somaliland, southern Djibouti, and the Somali, Harari and Afar regions of Ethiopia
Isaaq Sultanate, in Somaliland and the Somali region of Ethiopia
Habr Yunis Sultanate, in Somaliland and Somali region of Ethiopia
Warsangali Sultanate, in northern Somalia
Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia/Majerteenia), in northern Somalia
Sultanate of Hobyo, in central Somalia
Sultanate of the Geledi, in southern Somalia
Sultanate of Aussa, in northeastern Ethiopia
Sultanate of Harar, in eastern Ethiopia
Jarso Sultanate
Sultanate of Ifat, in Somaliland, Djibouti and eastern Ethiopia
Sultanate of Mogadishu, in south-central Somalia
Sultanate of Showa, in central Ethiopia
Bimaal Sultanate, in south eastern Somalia centred in Merka

Kilwa Sultanate collection of commercial city-states in present day Tanzania and Mozambique thumb|right|alt=Map of 1310 East Africa|Swahili Coast in 1310, showing the Sultanate of Kilwa and its satellites.
Angoche Sultanate, on the Mozambiquan coast (also several neighbouring sheikdoms)
various sultans on the Comoros; however on the Comoros, the normally used styles were alternative native titles, including Mfalme, Phany or Jambé and the 'hegemonic' title Sultani tibe
the Maore (or Mawuti) sultanate on Mayotte (separated from the Comoros)

thumb|The eighth [[List of sultans of Zanzibar|Sultan of Zanzibar, Ali bin Hamud. Photograph taken between 1902 and 1911]]

Sultanate of Zanzibar: two incumbents (from the Omani dynasty) since the de facto separation from Oman in 1806, the last assumed the title Sultan in 1861 at the formal separation under British auspices; since 1964 union with Tanganyika (part of Tanzania)

Mfalume

Mfalume is the title of various native Muslim rulers, generally rendered in Arabic and in western languages as Sultan:

in Kenya:
Pate on part of Pate island (capital also named Pate), in the Lamu Archipelago
Wituland, became a German, then British protectorate
in Tanganyika (presently part of Tanzania): of Hadimu, on the island of that name; also styled Jembe

Sultani

This was the native ruler's title in the Tanzanian state of Uhehe.

Maliki

Apparently derived from the Arabic malik, this was the alternative native style of the sultans of the Kilwa Sultanate in Tanganyika (presently the continental part of Tanzania).

Persia and Central Asia

Ghaznavid Empire; its ruler, Mahmud of Ghazni, was the first Muslim sovereign to be known as sultan.
Great Seljuk Empire
Timurid Empire
Sultans of Baneh (In Kurdistan, members of the Ekhtiyar al-Din family governed Baneh as Sultans defending against the Ottoman frontier)
Afghan Kingdom: Sultan had a different meaning. It was a high title of honour, superior to Amir and Sardar, but ranking below Shah.
Kazakh Khanate

Indian superregion

Bahmani Sultanate: Bahmani Shahs
Sultanate of Bengal: Ilyas Shahi, Ganesha, Habshi, Hussain Shahi, Muhammad Shah and Karranis
Sultanates of the Deccan:
Adil Shahi of Bijapur
Barid Shahi of Bidar
Imad Shahi of Berar
Nizam Shahi of Ahmednagar
Qutb Shahi of Golconda
Sultanate of Delhi: Mamluks, Khiljis, Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis
Sultanate of Gujarat: Muzaffarids
Sultanate of Jaunpur: Sharqi dynasty
Sultanate of Kandesh: Faruqi dynasty
Sultanate of Malwa: three dynasties
Sultanate of Madurai
Sultanate_of_Mysore: Kingdom of Mysore between 1761 and 1799
Sultanate of Laccadive and Cannanore: Arakkal Kingdom
Sultanate of Kashmir: Shahmirids and Chaks
Sultanate of Maldives
Sultanate of Hunnur

Southeast and East Asia

thumb|upright=0.7|[[Hamengkubuwono X, the incumbent Sultan of Yogyakarta]]

thumb|upright=0.7|[[Pakubuwono XII, last undisputed Susuhunan of Surakarta]]

thumb|upright=0.7|Sultan Saifuddin of [[Sultanate of Tidore|Tidore]]

thumb|upright=0.7|[[Mohammed Mahakuttah Abdullah Kiram, last recognised Sultan of Sulu]]

In Indonesia (formerly in the Dutch East Indies) from west to east:

In Sumatra
Aceh Sultanate (full style Sultan Berdaulat Zillullah fil-Alam)
Sultanate of Asahan
Sultanate of Jambi
Sultanate of Deli
Sultanate of Indragiri
Sultanate of Langkat (previous style Raja)
Kotapinang Sultanate
Bilah Sultanate
Palembang Sultanate, also holding the higher title of Susuhunan
Sultanate of Pagaruyung
Sultanate of Peureulak
Riau-Lingga Sultanate
Samudera Pasai Sultanate
Sultanate of Serdang
Sultanate of Siak

In the Riau Archipelago: Sultanate of Riau-Lingga by secession in 1818 under the expelled sultan of Johore (on Malaya) Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud

On Java
Sultanate of Banten
Sultanate of Cirebon – the rulers in three of the four palaces (kraton), from which divided Cirebon was ruled: Kraton Kasepuhan, Kraton Kanoman and Kraton Kacirebonan (only in Kraton Kaprabonan was the ruler's title Panembahan)
Sultanate of Demak
Sultanate of Pajang
Sumedang Larang Sultanate
Sultanate of Mataram (was divided into two kingdoms: the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and Sunanan Surakarta)
Sultanate of Yogyakarta
Sunanate of Surakarta (susuhunan, a high-ranked monarch, equivalent to emperor)

On Kalimantan
Sultanate of Banjar
Sultanate of Berau
Sultanate of Bulungan
Sultanate of Gunung Tabur
Sultanate of Kubu
Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate
Sultanate of Mempawah
Sultanate of Paser
Sultanate of Pontianak
Sultanate of Sambaliung
Sultanate of Sambas

On Sulawesi
Gorontalo Sultanate
Sultanate of Buton
Sultanate of Bone
Sultanate of Gowa
Sultanate of Luwu
Sultanate of Wajoq

In the Maluku Islands (Moluccas)
Sultanate of Ternate
Sultanate of Tidore
Sultanate of Bacan
Sultanate of Jailolo

In the Nusa Tenggara (former Lesser Sunda Islands)
Bima Sultanate
Sumbawa Sultanate

In Malaysia:

In Peninsular Malaysia, where all seven of the country's present sultanates are located:
Sultanate of Johor
Sultanate of Kedah
Sultanate of Kelantan
Sultanate of Pahang
Sultanate of Perak
Sultanate of Selangor
Sultanate of Terengganu
Furthermore, the ruler of Luak Jelebu, one of the constitutive states of the Negeri Sembilan confederation, had the style Sultan in addition to his principal title Undang Luak Jelebu.
Sultanate of Malacca
Sultanate of Sarawak

In Brunei:

Sultan of Brunei, Brunei (on Borneo island)

In China:

Dali, Yunnan, capital of the short-lived Panthay Rebellion
Furthermore, the Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin (Leader of the Community of Muslims) of Pingnan Guo ("Pacified South State", a major Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province) is usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan.

In the Philippines:

Sultanate of Buayan
Sultanate of Maguindanao
Confederation of Sultanates of Lanao
Sultanate of Sulu (Sulu, Basilan, Palawan and Tawi-Tawi islands and part of eastern Sabah on North Borneo)
Sultanate of Panay

In Thailand:

Sultanate of Patani
Sultanate of Singgora