Story of Sinuhe

thumb|alt=Light gray stone surface with carved and painted images of two woman, a falcon-headed god, a black-haired man with a long goatee, a jackal-headed god, and Egyptian hieroglyphs inscribed along the top|A raised-relief depiction of [[Amenemhat I accompanied by deities; the death of Amenemhat I is reported by his son Senusret I in the Story of Sinuhe.]]

The Story of Sinuhe, also referred to as the Story of Sanehat or Sanhath, is a work of ancient Egyptian literature. It was likely composed in the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty after the death of Amenemhat I and the ascention of Senusret I as sole pharaoh (i.e. some time after 1971 BC). The tale describes an Egyptian man who flees his kingdom, and lives as a foreigner before returning to Egypt shortly before his death. It explores universal themes such as divine providence and mercy. The oldest known copy of the text dates to the reign of Amenemhat III, around 1800 BC. The work was so popular within Egypt that newer copies have been found ranging up to 750 years after the original.

The story is known from significantly more primary sources than any other ancient Egyptian literary narrative – at least five papyri and 30 ostraca. Most other such narratives are known from one period, whereas Sinuhe spans the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom.

Summary

The Story of Sinuhe is written in verse and opens with a wording similarly stylized like other autobiographical coffin texts that are common in Middle Kingdom Egyptian tombs. Theoretically, the Story of Sinuhe would have been inscribed on his supposed tomb.

Sources

One of the oldest versions of this text was found by James Edward Quibell in an expedition to western Thebes in 1896. The excavation took place in several Middle Kingdom tombs found in the back of the Ramesseum. Here, Quibell found various fragments of papyri, later named the Ramesseum papyri. Many of these were of a medicinal subject matter, but literary texts have also been found, including the Story of Sinuhe. These fragments date back to the late 13th dynasty. Additionally, Quibell and his team also found a small chest, reed pens and several other items of interest. In a discussion about this archaeological expedition, author Alan Gardiner made note of the fragility and poor condition that the papyrus was found in; “if a fragment of the material were pressed slightly between the finger and thumb it disappeared in a mere dust". This copy of the Story of Sinuhe is written in hieratic. Gardiner used information from Quibell’s findings as well as a later ostracon to work on an English translation of the text. As the early ostracon and combined fragments from the Quibelll expedition allowed for a more complete version of the tale. Other authors have been able to build on his work and adjust their own translations as needed, one notable example being Alyward M. Blackman who published his own notes in 1936 based on Gardiner’s work.

thumb|A papyrus found in the Ramesseum tomb.

Many other versions of the text have been found. Including some fragments from a New Kingdom Ostracon, and a duplicate of the text discovered in the Museum of Natural History of Buenos Aires, as well as many more papyri. Most scholars on Egyptian literature agree that the large prevalence of sources indicate a widescale popularity of the Story of Sinuhe and that it had been copied in multitudes.  

Interpretations

The tale is notable for its age, as well as the popularity of the story in ancient history. It explores themes and morals that were a part of Egyptian ideals, such as order and chaos, or identity and the soul. While the story mostly takes place in Sinuhe’s time outside of Egypt, this retelling of Sinuhe’s life outside of Egyptian lands serves to encourage “reflection on the nature of Egyptian life, particularly on an individual's relationship to the king”.

The funerary autobiographical nature of the opening and closing of the tale is also significant. The traditional beginning in which the text is stylized as though it is written on Sinuhe’s tomb, listing his accomplishments and service to the royal family, is broken upon his fearful fleeing when the Pharaoh, Amenemhat I dies. The remaining stanzas of the story do not fit more traditional Egyptian narrative styles, at least until Sinuhe is able to return and be laid to rest in Egypt. This is a key narrative choice showing how Sinuhe is disconnected from traditional Egyptian culture once he departs from the safety and security of his homeland. Again showing Sinuhe’s disconnect from his heritage and identity upon his departure from Egypt. Another way of analyzing the narrative is that unlike most 'autobiographies' are written in some timeless fashion, however there is the underlying idea that Sinuhe desires to die within Egypt. Even if Sinuhe is alive at the end of the story, there's the underlying theme of wanting to reconnect with his culture directly, including dying within Egypt and receiving proper burial rites. As stated earlier, this is different from most autobiographies, most being written while they are alive, whereas with the Tale of Sinuhe, there is the implication of him passing on, perhaps most directly being stated within the Tale's final line: 'I was in the favours of the king's giving, until the day of landing came'(B 310 of Tale of Sinuhe).

Some interpretations have also been made about the name Sinuhe. Sinuhe is derived from the Egyptian phrase sA-nht or “Son of the Sycamore Tree”. In Egyptian myth the Sycamore or, Tree of Life, is associated with Hathor, a fertility goddess. Hathor being a goddess of fertility, there is possible interpretations for Sinuhe representing rebirth. Many homophones and etymologically related words to the term “sycomore”, nht, have to do with death, escape, and protection. Which are all common themes throughout the tale. Essentially, Sinuhe’s name serves as etymological foreshadowing for the ideals and events that take place throughout the story. Additionally upon his fleeing Sinuhe crosses a body of water, associated with Maat, while in the vicinity of a Sycamore tree. Further emphasizing their connection and perhaps illustrating Sinuhe’s fleeing of his own identity. The more common school of thought, the “impulsive school” as titled by author Meltzer, simply reads that Sinuhe’s decision to flee was merely an impulse of fear due to the impending disorder upon the king’s demise. As the king’s death seems to shock Sinuhe, it is commonly inferred that he was murdered or assassinated. This seems likely considering that the king Amenemhat, who is likely the king in the story, was assassinated. Another interpretation of his departure is that it was an attempt to escape the rule and power of the monarchy. And that during all of the commotion of the king’s death, Sinuhe saw his chance to escape and fled. The battle between David and Goliath is compared to Sinuhe's fight with a mighty challenger, whom he slays with a single blow, and the parable of the Prodigal Son is likened to Sinuhe's return home.

Additionally, the Story of Sinuhe inspired the modern novel Sinuhe the Egyptian (1945) by Mika Waltari and a film based on the novel.

References

External links

Translation which includes details on the sources for the translations, transcriptions from the original hieratic into Egyptian hieroglyphs.
Oxford Life of Sinuhe is a reading of the whole poem by actress Barbara Ewing.