thumb|upright|[[Usain Bolt, world record holder in 100 m and 200 m sprints]]
thumb|upright|This sprinter's initial crouch in the blocks allowed her to [[Isometric exercise#Isometric presses as preparation for explosive power movements|preload her muscles and channel the force generated from this into her first strides.]]
Sprinting is running as fast as possible over a relatively short distance and period of time. It involves the whole body working as one in order to produce maximum forward thrust through a series of sprinting strides which are taken as quickly as possible. It is used in many sports that incorporate running, typically as a way of rapidly reaching a target or goal, avoiding or catching an opponent, or intercepting a ball.
In athletics and track and field, sprints (or dashes) are races over short distances. They are among the oldest running competitions, being recorded at the Ancient Olympic Games. Three sprints are currently held at the modern Summer Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres.
At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position in the starting blocks before driving forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. The set position differs depending on the start. The use of starting blocks allows the sprinter to perform an enhanced isometric preload; this generates muscular pre-tension which is channeled into the subsequent forward drive, making it more powerful. Body alignment is of key importance in producing the optimal amount of force. Ideally, the athlete should begin in a 4-point stance and drive forwards concurrently pushing off using both legs for maximum force production. This initial forward thrust is asymmetric in nature usually meaning that the rear foot is lifted sooner while the front foot continues to push off from the front plate. As they come up from their low stance and their posture becomes increasingly upright they continue to thrust forwards in the direction of travel.
Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the sole exception of the 400 metres indoors. Races up to 100 metres are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum speed.
History
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thumbnail|The stadion of ancient [[Nemea, Greece]]
thumb|An [[Ancient Greek relief of a sprinter in the initial starting position. The next stage involved quickly crouching before exploding forward into the opening stride. Dated 500 BC and currently held in the Glyptothek, Munich.]]
The Ancient Olympic Games were begun in 776 BC. The first 13 editions featured only one event—the stadion race, which was a sprinting race from one end of the stadium to the other. The Diaulos (Δίαυλος, "double pipe") was a double-stadion race, , introduced in the 14th Olympiad of the ancient Olympic Games (724BC).
Sprinting, and sprint training, in Ancient Greece emphasised the need to be as light-footed as possible while also ensuring that the foot was placed stably. The contemporary Hellenised, Syrian writer Lucian, in his treatise Anachasis, or Athletics, states that:
Training in heavy sand helped the sprinters to develop their technique. As the sand could move awkwardly when they placed their feet it meant that they were in danger of losing their sense of balance. Therefore they had to place their feet more lightly and carefully in order to avoid this happening. With continued practice this developed their ability to be as light-footed and as sure-footed as possible. Jump training, with and without weights, were methods used to develop the light-footedness and explosive power of sprinters and other athletes.
In the middle-ages sprint races were referred to as foot-races. They were a popular pastime and considered to be a worthy pursuit especially for males raised in military professions. Writing in 1801, the sports writer Joseph Strutt stated 'There is no other exercise that has more uniformly met the approbation of authors than running. In the middle-ages, foot-racing was considered as an essential part of a young man's education, especially if he was the son of a man of rank, and brought up in a military profession.'
In America in 1691, Sir Francis Nicholson hosted a Virginia athletic games which involved foot-races among its events. These races were partly based on a practice from Britain where aristocrats would race their footmen against each other for entertainment. As betting became more a part of the races, professional runners began to increasingly emerge.
Writing in 1838, the Hawaiian intellectual, David Malo, described foot-races which were part of traditional Hawaiian culture. The participants were called Kukini, meaning swift-runners, and they trained with task-specific physical training exercises and ate a specialised diet. Malo states 'The runner was first exercised in walking on his toes, without touching the heel of the foot to the ground. Then he was set to running, at first for a short distance at a moderate pace. Finally he was made to run at full speed for great distances. While in training they were denied poi and all soggy, heavy food, but were fed on rare-done flesh of the fowl and roasted vegetables, taro, sweet-potato, bread-fruit, etc.' The sprinters had to race from a starting point to a flag on a pole. Bets were placed on the runners by the spectators. These runners were also employed as messengers for civil and military matters.
The first modern Olympic Games started in the late 19th century (Athens 1896) and featured the 100 metres and 400 metres. Athletes started both races from a crouched start (4-point stance). In both the original Olympics and the modern Olympics, only men were allowed to participate in track and field until the 1928 games in Amsterdam, Netherlands. The 1928 games were also the first games to use a 400-metre track, which became the standard for track and field.
The modern sprinting events have their roots in races of imperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 100 m evolved from the 100-yard dash, the 200 m distance came from the furlong (or mile), and the 400 m was the successor to the 440-yard dash or quarter-mile race. decided to switch track and field in the U.S. to the metric system to finally make track and field internationally equivalent.
Biological factors for runners
Biological factors that determine a sprinter's potential include:
- Height (minor factor)
- Muscular strength
- Adrenaline use
- Anaerobic respiration capacity
- Breathing
- Footspeed
- Proportion of fast twitch muscles
- Leg length
- Pelvic width
Competitions
thumb|Start of the women's 60 m at the [[2010 IAAF World Indoor Championships|2010 World Indoor Championships]]
Common contemporary distances
60 metres
- Normally run indoors, on a straight section of an indoor athletic track.
- Some of the fastest humans reach their maximum speed around the 60-metre mark.
- 60-metres is often used as an outdoor distance by younger athletes when starting sprint racing.
Note: Indoor distances are less standardized, as many facilities run shorter or occasionally longer distances depending on available space. 60 m is the championship distance.
100 metres
Source:
- Takes place on the straight of a standard outdoor 400 m track.
- Often, the world-record holder in this race is considered "the world's fastest man or woman."
- Primarily an outdoor race.
thumb|A 200 m bend
200 metres
Source:
- Runners are staggered in their starting positions to ensure that everyone runs the same distance.
- Runners use exchange zones (and, previously, separate acceleration zones which have now been eliminated) to pass a baton
4 × 400 metres relay
Source:
50 m
The 50 metres is an uncommon event and alternative to the 60 metres. Donovan Bailey holds the men's world record with a time of 5.56 seconds and Irina Privalova holds the women's world record with a time of 5.96 seconds.
60 yards (54.864 m)
- A rarely run sprinting event that was once more commonplace. The world record time of 5.99 seconds is held by Lee McRae and was set in 1987. The time is often used for American football speed training.
55 m
The 55 metres is an uncommon event that resulted from the metrication of the 60 yards and is an alternative to the 60 metres.
70 yards (64.008 m)
An extremely rare sprinting event, that was occasionally run in the 1960s. The world record of 6.90 seconds is held by Bob Hayes.
100 yards (91.44 m)
- The outdoor standard in the English (imperial measured) speaking world. It was part of the Commonwealth Games up until 1966 and was the premier event in American high school sprinting until the NFHS changed to metric in 1980, now only a secondary distance to the 100 metres.
- The unofficial World Record Holder is Jamaican Asafa Powell with a time of 9.07 seconds.
150 m
thumb|right|150 metres final at the Manchester City Games 2009
- The informal distance of 150 metres (164.042 yards) can be used to work on a 100 m runner's stamina, or a 200 m runner's speed, and has been used as an exhibition distance. The distance was used in a race between the 1996 Olympic champions, the 100 m gold medalist Donovan Bailey (Canada) and the 200 m gold medalist Michael Johnson (USA). It was to decide which of the two was really the 'fastest man on earth' (see Bailey–Johnson 150-metre race).
- The informal distance was used for an exhibition race during the Manchester Great CityGames as part of the 2009 Great Manchester Run (UK). Stars included Triple Olympic Champion Usain Bolt (Jamaica) alongside Ivory Williams (USA), Simeon Williamson (UK), and other international track stars. The female race included 400 m Olympic Champion, Christine Ohuruogu of Great Britain alongside Debbie Ferguson-McKenzie (Bahamas). Bolt ran the distance in a record time of 14.35 seconds.
Stadion
thumb|A race scene from Ancient Greece. This drawing is an early 20th Century copy of scene from an Ancient Greek [[Panathenaic amphora.]]
The stadion, also known as the stade, was the standard short distance sprint in ancient Greece and ran the length of a stadium. However, stadiums could vary in size and there was apparently no definite standard length for them, e.g., the stadium at Delphi measures 177 m and the one at Pergamon 210 m.
300 m
- The 300 metres is another informal distance, which could be used to aid a 200 m runner's stamina, or a 400 m runner's speed. Currently, the world's best for this event is 30.69 seconds, set by Letsile Tebogo at altitude in Pretoria, South Africa in 2024. The women's record is 34.41 seconds, set by Shaunae Miller-Uibo in Ostrava, Czech Republic in 2019. Junior girls in several countries run this distance instead of the 400 metres.
Diaulos
The diaulos was an event contested in the Ancient Greek Olympia that was double the length of a stadion.
As well as standard foot races, in Ancient Greece there was also a sprint race called the hoplitodromos ('armed diaulos). This required the sprinters to additionally carry a large shield, wear greaves and a helmet. The wearing of greaves was discontinued around 450 BC. Similarly to the diaulos, they ran two stades in length i.e. one stade ending with a 180 degree turn around a post, which led onto the second stade in length back down the track. However, for some hoplitodromos races all of the sprinters ran around a single central post.
4 × 200 metres relay
Source:
Sprinting spikes are typically designed to be lightweight, with a minimal cushion on the heels and a plate on the forefoot to keep the runner on the toes of each foot. The spike plate will typically have the maximum number of holes for metal spikes to be inserted to keep a proper grip on the track surface. These metal removable spikes also come in varying sizes. The spikes typically range from 4 mm to 15 mm and come in different styles. Most facilities have specific requirements for what size and style spikes can be used.
Starting blocks
Starting blocks are not a necessity but are highly suggested for use in sprinting events. Starting blocks are a piece of equipment that typically consists of foot pads attached to a central rail. The point of using blocks is to help the athlete push themselves further down the track as quickly as possible.
Baton
The baton is a required element for any relay race. The baton is passed to each athlete through different exchange zones, with different techniques. Typically, about long and in diameter.
Timing
Stopwatches
Used typically in training sessions to measure relative times and recovery times. Stopwatches are not always the most accurate way to measure times in a race setting,
Fully Automatic Timing / gate systems
Fully Automatic Timing (FAT) and gate systems are used to accurately measure races, with results as accurate as up to 1/1000 of a second.
Governing bodies
As of 2021, World Athletics (WA) is the governing body for track and field around the world. Every country that wishes to participate in WA competitions must become a member.
Rules
Rule differences between governing bodies
Each governing body sets its own rules for how competition is deemed fair. World Athletics sets the competition rules internationally. The World Athletics rulebook is broken into 4 separate books.
The start
thumb|[[Jeremy Wariner beginning a race from the starting blocks]]
Starting blocks are used for all competition sprints (up to and including 400 m) and relay events (first leg only, up to 4x400 m). The starting blocks consist of two adjustable footplates attached to a rigid frame. Races commence with the firing of the starter's gun.
Lanes
thumb|Sprint lanes in [[Örnsköldsvik, Sweden, as seen from the 100 m starting point]]
For all Olympic sprint events, runners must remain within their pre-assigned lanes, which measure 1.22 metres (4 feet) wide, from start to finish. The lanes can be numbered 1 through 8, 9, or rarely 10, starting with the inside lane. Any athlete who runs outside the assigned lane to gain an advantage is subject to disqualification. If the athlete is forced to run outside of their lane by another person, and no material advantage is gained, there will be no disqualification. Also, a runner who strays from their lane in the straightaway, or crosses the outer line of their lane on the bend, and gains no advantage by it, will not be disqualified as long as no other runner is obstructed.
The finish
thumb|The finish of the 1987 East German athletics championships
The first athlete whose torso reaches the vertical plane of the closest edge of the finish line is the winner. To ensure that the sprinter's torso triggers the timing impulse at the finish line rather than an arm, foot, or other body parts, a double Photocell is commonly used. Times are only recorded by an electronic timing system when both of these Photocells are simultaneously blocked.
Photo finish systems are also used at some track and field events.
World records
{| class="wikitable"
|+Women's World Records
!Discipline
!Performance
!Competitor
!Country
!Venue
!Date
|-
|50 metres
|5.96
|Irina Privalova
|RUS
|Madrid (ESP)
|9 February 1995
|-
|60 metres
|6.92
|Irina Privalova
|USA
|Indianapolis, Indiana (USA)
|16 July 1988
|-
|200 metres (indoors)
|21.87
|Merlene Ottey
|JAM
|Lievin (FRA)
|13 February 1993
|-
|200 metres (outdoors)
|21.34
|Florence Griffith-Joyner
|NLD
|Omnisport, Apeldoorn (NLD)
|19 February 2023
|-
|400 metres (outdoors)
|47.60
|Marita Koch
|GDR
|Bruce Stadium, Canberra (AUS)
|6 October 1985
|-
|4x100 metre relay
|40.82
|Tianna Bartoletta, Allyson Felix, Bianca Knight, Carmelita Jeter
|USA Yuliya Pechonkina, Irina Khabarova, Yekaterina Kondratyeva
|RUS Nanceen Perry, LaTasha Colander, LaTasha Jenkins
|USA Olga Zaytseva, Olesya Krasnomovets-Forsheva
|RUS Olga Nazarova, Mariya Pinigina, Olga Bryzgina
|URS
|Olympic Stadium, Jamsil, Seoul (KOR)
|1 October 1988
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Men's World Records
!Discipline
!Performance
!Competitor
!Country
!Venue
!Date
|-
|50 metres
|5.56
|Donovan Bailey
|CAN
|Reno, Nevada (USA)
|9 February 1996
|-
|60 metres
|6.34
|Christian Coleman
|USA
|JAM
|NAM
|Liévin (FRA)
|18 February 1996
|-
|200 metres (outdoors)
|19.19
|Usain Bolt
|USA
|RSA
|Estádio Olímpico, Rio de Janeiro (BRA)
|14 August 2016
|-
|4x100 metre relay
|36.84
|Nesta Carter, Michael Frater, Yohan Blake, Usain Bolt Ade Mafe, Darren Braithwaite, Linford Christie
|GBR
|Glasgow (GBR)
|3 March 1991
|-
|4x200 metre relay (outdoors)
|1:18.63
|Nickel Ashmeade, Warren Weir, Jermaine Brown, Yohan Blake Obi Igbokwe, Jermaine Holt, Kahmari Montgomery
|USA Harry "Butch" Reynolds, Quincy Watts, Andrew Valmon
|USA athletes must be dedicated to their training to ensure that they can optimize their performances. Sprint training includes various running workouts, targeting acceleration, speed development, speed endurance, special endurance, and tempo endurance. Additionally, athletes perform intense strength training workouts, as well as plyometric or jumping workouts. Collectively, these training methods produce qualities that allow athletes to be stronger, and more powerful, in hopes of ultimately running faster.
Strength and balance
In is important for sprinters that their muscular system is in the optimum ratio in order to maximise their chances of success. As such, in their training they seek to avoid excessive muscle imbalances developing especially in regard to a lateral imbalance between the left and right sides of their body. For example, the strength of their left and right legs should be approximately even and neither leg should be excessively stronger than the other. If there is an excessive lateral imbalance, with one side of the body much stronger than the other, then it can result in negative physical stresses, overuse injuries and poor sprinting form. Methods to avoid this are therefore incorporated into sprint training.
During the 200m and 400m sprints athletes run counter-clockwise around curved sections of the track. This is known as running the bend or curvilinear running. When sprinters run around these curved sections of track, their gait becomes asynchronous meaning that their left stride is shorter and their right stride longer. In order to avoid their leg muscles developing in a lop sided fashion they also run clockwise around the track during training. This means that, overall, they are using their left and right legs in a more even manner and therefore their strength develops in more of a balanced way.
Similarly, launching from starting blocks is an asynchronous action. The foot on the front pedal drives for longer and applies significantly more force overall in this phase. In order to avoid a strength imbalance developing between the leg used on the front pedal and the one used on the rear pedal, the athlete alternates the foot they use for each pedal i.e. uses the left foot in the front pedal some of the time and the right foot in the front pedal at other times. Such a training practice results in a more even muscular development, improves overall efficiency and reduces the risk of injury. In races, sprinters use their strongest set up and put their preferred foot in the front pedal.
Alternating asynchronous actions is a standard method used by athletes to ensure they achieve the optimum muscular development for their discipline and ensure higher levels of success.
See also
- Sprint cycling
- Athletics at the Summer Olympics
- 60 metres at the Olympics
- 100 metres at the Olympics
- 200 metres at the Olympics
- 400 metres at the Olympics
- Sprint hurdles at the Olympics
- 400 metres hurdles at the Olympics
- 4×100 metres relay at the Olympics
- 4×400 metres relay at the Olympics
Notes and references
External links
- Top 10 greatest sprint races in history (archived 17 November 2006)
- IAAF list of sprint records in XML