Spondylus - WikiHQ

Spondylus is a genus of bivalve molluscs, the only genus in the family Spondylidae and subfamily Spondylinae.

thumb|180px|left|Fossil valve of Spondylus crassicosta from the [[Pliocene of Italy]]

Fossils of these molluscs may be found in fossiliferous marine strata all over the world. For example, they are present in Cretaceous rocks in the Fort Worth Formation of Texas, and in the Trent River Formation of Vancouver Island, as well as in other parts of North America.

Distribution

Spiny oysters are found in all subtropical and (especially) tropical seas, usually close to the coasts.

Ecology

Spondylus are filter feeders. The adults live cemented to hard substrates, a characteristic they share, by convergent evolution, with true oysters and jewel boxes. Like the latter, they are protected by spines and a layer of epibionts and, like the former, they can produce pearls. The type of substrate they use depends on the species: many only attach to coral, and the largest diversity of species is found in tropical coral reefs; others (particularly S. spinosus), however, easily adapt to manufactured structures such as boats, pipes, and docks thereby becoming significant invasive species. Often other species are found attached to the shells of other species, perhaps the most common being found attached to the genus Malleus.

Uses

Archaeological evidence indicates that people in Neolithic Europe were trading the shells of S. gaederopus to make bangles and other ornaments throughout much of the Neolithic period. The main period of Neolithic use appears to have been from around 5350 to 4200 BC. In fact, much like in Europe, the trade in Spondylus shells also reached far and wide, as pre-Hispanic Ecuadorian peoples traded them with peoples as far north as present-day Mexico and as far south as the central Andes. The Moche people of ancient Peru regarded the sea and animals as sacred; they used Spondylus shells in their art and depicted Spondylus in effigy pots. Spondylus also were harvested from the Gulf of California and traded to tribes throughout Mexico and the American Southwest.

Spondylus shells were the driving factor of trade within the Central Andes and were used in a similar manner to gold nuggets, copper hatches, coca, salt, red pepper, and cotton cloth.

The use of Spondylus shells is what led to an economy of sorts in the Central Andes and led to the development of a merchant class, "mercardes", in different cultures within the Central Andes. This caused the development of different styles of trade that went through evolutionary changes throughout pre-Columbian times. These are reciprocity (home based), reciprocity (boundary), down-the-line trade, central place redistribution, central place market exchange, emissary trading, and port of trade. These modes of trade dictate the way that the Spondylus shells are traded, as well as who is benefiting the most from the trades. Modes such as central place redistribution require the entity that is the central place to be the one that gains the most benefit from the trade, and modes such as emissary trading and port of trade are the modes that started the "mercardes" class within the Central Andes.

The value of Spondylus shells in the Central Andes stems from supply and demand. There was a great demand for Spondylus shells due to the "fetishistic needs to the south".

Even today, there are collectors of Spondylus shells, and a commercial market exists for them. Additionally, some species (especially S. americanus) sometimes are found in the saltwater aquariums.

S. limbatus was commonly ground for mortar in Central America, giving raise to its junior synonym, "S. calcifer".

Spondylus is fished primarily for its adductor muscle, or "callus", which is a high-value foodstuff. Some Mediterranean species are edible and are commonly consumed, with S. gaederopus in particular being popular in Sardinia. Tropical species, however, tend to bioaccumulate saxitoxin.

The Romans ate Spondylus species. Macrobius in Saturnalia III.13 describes a dinner party in 63 BCE in which there were two courses of Spondylus.

Aztec culture

In addition to its significance in the pre-Columbian times, Spondylus crassiquama was also an important part of Aztec culture.

thumb|Double-headed serpent made of Spondylus shell

Spondylus held immense religious significance in pre-Columbian Aztec culture and is also a great representation of the relationship between the Aztec empire and nature. To Aztec groups and peoples, Spondylus was a gift from the deities to be celebrated. Certain Spondylus groups were formed as a result of when and where they may be found seasonally and tend to connect a particular group of Spondylus to specific religious symbols such as the Fertility goddess, the Moon goddess, the Sun god, and the mountain spirits. This led to certain groups of Spondylus being associated with seasonal weather events such as heavy rains or increases in sea temperature along the coast, as those events were closely associated with particular deities or spirits in Aztec culture.

thumb|Mask made of Spondylus and other materials

Spondylus had several key uses in pre-Columbian Aztec history, most predominantly its importance in jewelry, art, and sculpture. Another use of Spondylus, that had to be executed with extreme detail and precision, was to create breathtaking masks, vests, and other items individuals would use to express how important or wealthy they were in life and death. Having the most beautiful Spondylus pieces, meant that individual had immense power within the community.

Species

Spondylidae taxonomy has undergone many revisions, mostly due to the fact that identification is traditionally based on the shell alone, and this is highly variable. To add to this, while some shallow-water species are extremely common, at least two deep-water species  are known from a single specimen, while a third (S. gravis) was only identified in the late 1900s. At least another common species (S. regius) has a different shell when it grows in deep water.

thumb|Spondylus senegalensis (K. Schreibers, 1793) from Tenerife, Canary Islands

thumb|Pacific thorny oyster, S. crassisquama Lamarck, 1819, from the [[Gulf of California, Mexico]]

thumb|The interior of two fossil valves of Spondylus from the [[Pliocene of Cyprus]]

thumb|Cat's tongue oyster, Spondylus linguaefelis Sowerby, 1847, from [[Hawaii]]

right|thumb|A view of the colorful [[Mantle (mollusc)|mantle edges of a live thorny oyster from East Timor: The eyes may be seen on the fringe between the mantle and the shell.]]

thumb| A fossil [[Spondylus gaederopus from the Pliocene of Cyprus]]

thumb|[[Spondylus visayensis]]

Spondylus gussonii O. G. Costa, 1830
Spondylus heidkeae Lamprell & Healy, 2001
Spondylus imperialis Chenu, 1844
Spondylus jamarci Okutani, 1983
Spondylus Lamarckii Chenu, 1845
Spondylus layardi Reeve, 1856
Spondylus leucacanthus Broderip, 1833
Spondylus limbatus G. B. Sowerby II, 1847
Spondylus linguafelis G. B. Sowerby II, 1847
Spondylus maestratii Lamprell & Healy, 2001
Spondylus marinensis Cossignani & Allary, 2018
Spondylus mimus Dall, Bartsch & Rehder, 1938
Spondylus morrisoni Damarco, 2015
Spondylus multimuricatus Reeve, 1856
Spondylus multisetosus Reeve, 1856
† Spondylus multistriatus Deshayes, 1830
Spondylus nicobaricus Schreibers, 1793
Spondylus occidens G. B. Sowerby III, 1903
Spondylus ocellatus Reeve, 1856
Spondylus orstomi Lamprell & Healy, 2001
Spondylus ostreoides E. A. Smith, 1885
Spondylus pratii Parth, 1990
Spondylus proneri Lamprell & Healy, 2001
Spondylus pseudogaederopus T. Cossignani, 2022
Spondylus purpurascens T. Cossignani, 2022
† Spondylus radula Lamarck, 1806
Spondylus raoulensis W. R. B. Oliver, 1915
† Spondylus rarispina Deshayes, 1830
Spondylus reesianus G. B. Sowerby III, 1903
Spondylus regius Linnaeus, 1758 – regal thorny oyster
Spondylus rippingalei Lamprell & Healy, 2001
Spondylus rubicundus Reeve, 1856
Spondylus senegalensis Schreibers, 1793
Spondylus sinensis Schreibers, 1793
Spondylus spinosus Schreibers, 1793
Spondylus squamosus Schreibers, 1793
Spondylus tenellus Reeve, 1856
Spondylus tenuis Schreibers, 1793
Spondylus tenuispinosus G. B. Sowerby II, 1847
Spondylus tenuitas Garrard, 1966
Spondylus variegatus Schreibers, 1793
Spondylus varius G. B. Sowerby I, 1827
† Spondylus vaudini Deshayes, 1858
Spondylus versicolor Schreibers, 1793
Spondylus victoriae G. B. Sowerby II, 1860
Spondylus violacescens Lamarck, 1819
Spondylus virgineus Reeve, 1856
Spondylus visayensis Poppe & Tagaro, 2010
Spondylus zonalis Lamarck, 1819

Spondylus echinus Jousseaume in Lamy, 1927 (taxon inquirendum)
Spondylus imbricatus Perry, 1811 (nomen dubium)
Spondylus microlepos Lamarck, 1819 (nomen dubium)
Spondylus unicolor G. B. Sowerby II, 1847 (nomen dubium)

See also: Tikod amo, an undescribed species

References

External links

Spondylidae examples of the shells of most extant species
shells at the Rotterdam Natural History Museum
Session Abstracts on Spondylus research at the 13th Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists at Zadar, Croatia, September 2007
Information about Spondylus from the website of the Gladys Archerd Shell Collection at Washington State University Tri-Cities Natural History Museum
Article on "notched" Spondylus Neolithic artifacts in Europe

Bibliography

A full and constantly updated bibliography on Spondylus spp. in Aegean, Balkan, European and American contexts
Lamprell, Kevin L.: Spondylus: Spiny Oyster Shells of the World, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1987