Sodium hypochlorite is an alkaline inorganic chemical compound with the formula (also written as NaClO). It is commonly known in a dilute aqueous solution as bleach or chlorine bleach. It is the sodium salt of hypochlorous acid, consisting of sodium cations () and hypochlorite anions (, also written as and ).
The anhydrous compound is unstable and may decompose explosively.
Sodium hypochlorite is most often encountered as a pale greenish-yellow dilute solution referred to as chlorine bleach, which is a household chemical widely used (since the 18th century) as a disinfectant and bleaching agent. In solution, the compound is unstable and easily decomposes, liberating chlorine, which is the active principle of such products. Sodium hypochlorite is still the most important chlorine-based bleach.
Its corrosive properties, common availability, and reaction products make it a significant safety risk. In particular, mixing liquid bleach with other cleaning products, such as acids found in limescale-removing products, will release toxic chlorine gas. A common misconception is that mixing bleach with ammonia also releases chlorine, but in reality they react to produce chloramines such as nitrogen trichloride. With excess ammonia and sodium hydroxide, hydrazine may be generated.
Chemistry
Stability of the solid
Anhydrous sodium hypochlorite can be prepared but, like many hypochlorites, it is highly unstable and decomposes explosively on heating or friction. The decomposition is accelerated by carbon dioxide at Earth's atmospheric levels - around 4 parts per ten thousand.
Sodium hypochlorite can also be obtained as a crystalline pentahydrate , which is not explosive and is much more stable than the anhydrous compound. The formula is sometimes given in its hydrous crystalline form as . The Cl–O bond length in the pentahydrate is 1.686 Å. crystals contain 44% NaOCl by weight and melt at 25–27 °C. The compound decomposes rapidly at room temperature, so it must be kept under refrigeration. At lower temperatures, however, it is quite stable: reportedly only 1% decomposition after 360 days at 7 °C.
A 1966 US patent claims that stable solid sodium hypochlorite dihydrate can be obtained by carefully excluding chloride ions (), which are present in the output of common manufacturing processes and are said to catalyze the decomposition of hypochlorite into chlorate () and chloride. In one test, the dihydrate was claimed to show only 6% decomposition after 13.5 months of storage at −25 °C. The patent also claims that the dihydrate can be reduced to the anhydrous form by vacuum drying at about 50 °C, yielding a solid that showed no decomposition after 64 hours at −25 °C.
Equilibria and stability of solutions
At typical ambient temperatures, sodium hypochlorite is more stable in dilute solutions that contain solvated and ions. The density of the solution is 1.093 g/mL at 5% concentration, and 1.21 g/mL at 14%, 20 °C. Stoichiometric solutions are fairly alkaline, with pH 11 or higher
:
:
:
:
The second equilibrium equation above will be shifted to the right if the chlorine is allowed to escape as gas. The ratios of , HOCl, and in solution are also pH dependent. At pH below 2, the majority of the chlorine in the solution is in the form of dissolved elemental . At pH greater than 7.4, the majority is in the form of hypochlorite .
:
This reaction is exploited in the industrial production of sodium chlorate.
An alternative decomposition of hypochlorite produces oxygen instead:
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In hot sodium hypochlorite solutions, this reaction competes with chlorate formation, yielding sodium chloride and oxygen gas: This decomposition is affected by light Catalysts like sodium dichromate and sodium molybdate may be added industrially to reduce the oxygen pathway, but a report claims that only the latter is effective.
In the presence of a phase-transfer catalyst, alcohols are oxidized to the corresponding carbonyl compound (aldehyde or ketone).
Production
Chlorination of soda
Potassium hypochlorite was first produced in 1789 by Claude Louis Berthollet in his laboratory on the Quai de Javel in Paris, France, by passing chlorine gas through a solution of potash lye. The resulting liquid, known as "Eau de Javel" ("Javel water"), was a weak solution of potassium hypochlorite. Antoine Labarraque replaced potash lye by the cheaper soda lye, thus obtaining sodium hypochlorite (Eau de Labarraque).
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Hence, chlorine is simultaneously reduced and oxidized; this process is known as disproportionation.
The process is also used to prepare the pentahydrate for industrial and laboratory use. In a typical process, chlorine gas is added to a 45–48% NaOH solution. Some of the sodium chloride precipitates and is removed by filtration, and the pentahydrate is then obtained by cooling the filtrate to 12 °C.
Electrolysis of brine
Near the end of the nineteenth century, E. S. Smith patented the chloralkali process: a method of producing sodium hypochlorite involving the electrolysis of brine to produce sodium hydroxide and chlorine gas, which then mixed to form sodium hypochlorite. The key reactions are:
: (at the anode)
: (at the cathode)
Both electric power and brine solutions were in cheap supply at the time, and various enterprising marketers took advantage of the situation to satisfy the market's demand for sodium hypochlorite. Bottled solutions of sodium hypochlorite were sold under numerous trade names.
Today, an improved version of this method, known as the Hooker process (named after Hooker Chemicals, acquired by Occidental Petroleum), is the only large-scale industrial method of sodium hypochlorite production. In the process, sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) and sodium chloride (NaCl) are formed when chlorine is passed into a cold dilute sodium hydroxide solution. The chlorine is prepared industrially by electrolysis with minimal separation between the anode and the cathode. The solution must be kept below 40 °C (by cooling coils) to prevent the undesired formation of sodium chlorate.
Commercial solutions always contain significant amounts of sodium chloride (common salt) as the main by-product, as seen in the equation above.
From hypochlorous acid and soda
A 1966 patent describes the production of solid stable dihydrate by reacting a chloride-free solution of hypochlorous acid HClO (such as prepared from chlorine monoxide ClO and water), with a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide. In a typical preparation, 255 mL of a solution with 118 g/L HClO is slowly added with stirring to a solution of 40 g of NaOH in water 0 °C. Some sodium chloride precipitates and is removed by filtration. The solution is vacuum evaporated at 40–50 °C and 1–2 mmHg until the dihydrate crystallizes out. The crystals are vacuum-dried to produce a free-flowing crystalline powder.
Packaging and sale
thumb|Bleach packaged for household use, with 2.6%
Household bleach sold for use in laundering clothes is a 3–8% solution of sodium hypochlorite at the time of manufacture. Strength varies from one formulation to another and gradually decreases with long storage. Sodium hydroxide is usually added in small amounts to household bleach to slow down the decomposition of NaClO.
A 12% solution is widely used in waterworks for the chlorination of water, and a 15% solution is more commonly used for disinfection of wastewater in treatment plants. Sodium hypochlorite can also be used for point-of-use disinfection of drinking water, taking 0.2–2 mg of sodium hypochlorite per liter of water.
Dilute solutions (50 ppm to 1.5%) are found in disinfecting sprays and wipes used on hard surfaces.
Uses
Bleaching
Household bleach is, in general, a solution containing 3–8% sodium hypochlorite, by weight, and 0.01–0.05% sodium hydroxide; the sodium hydroxide is used to slow the decomposition of sodium hypochlorite into sodium chloride and sodium chlorate.
Cleaning
Sodium hypochlorite has destaining properties. and stains on crockery, especially those caused by the tannins in tea. It has also been used in laundry detergents and as a surface cleaner. It is also used in sodium hypochlorite washes.
Its bleaching, cleaning, deodorizing, and caustic effects are due to oxidation and hydrolysis (saponification). Organic dirt exposed to hypochlorite becomes water-soluble and non-volatile, which reduces its odor and facilitates its removal.
Disinfection
Sodium hypochlorite in solution exhibits broad-spectrum anti-microbial activity and is widely used in healthcare facilities in a variety of settings. It is usually diluted in water depending on its intended use. "Strong chlorine solution" is a 0.5% solution of hypochlorite (containing approximately 5000 ppm free chlorine) used for disinfecting areas contaminated with body fluids, including large blood spills (the area is first cleaned with detergent before being disinfected). It may be made by diluting household bleach as appropriate (normally 1 part bleach to 9 parts water). Such solutions have been demonstrated to inactivate both C. difficile "Weak chlorine solution" is a 0.05% solution of hypochlorite used for washing hands, but is normally prepared with calcium hypochlorite granules.
US government regulations allow food processing equipment and food contact surfaces to be sanitized with solutions containing bleach, provided that the solution is allowed to drain adequately before contact with food and that the solutions do not exceed 200 parts per million (ppm) available chlorine (for example, one tablespoon of typical household bleach containing 5.25% sodium hypochlorite, per gallon of water). If higher concentrations are used, the surface must be rinsed with potable water after sanitizing.
A similar concentration of bleach in warm water is used to sanitize surfaces before brewing beer or wine. Surfaces must be rinsed with sterilized (boiled) water to avoid imparting flavors to the brew; the chlorinated byproducts of sanitizing surfaces are also harmful. The mode of disinfectant action of sodium hypochlorite is similar to that of hypochlorous acid.
Solutions containing more than 500 ppm available chlorine are corrosive to some metals, alloys, and many thermoplastics (such as acetal resin) and need to be thoroughly removed afterward, so the bleach disinfection is sometimes followed by an ethanol disinfection. Liquids containing sodium hypochlorite as the main active component are also used for household cleaning and disinfection, for example toilet cleaners. Some cleaners are formulated to be viscous so as not to drain quickly from vertical surfaces, such as the inside of a toilet bowl.
The undissociated (nonionized) hypochlorous acid is believed to react with and inactivate bacterial and viral enzymes.
Neutrophils of the human immune system produce small amounts of hypochlorite inside phagosomes, which digest bacteria and viruses.
Deodorizing
Sodium hypochlorite has deodorizing properties, which go hand-in-hand with its cleaning properties.
Waste water treatment
Sodium hypochlorite solutions have been used to treat dilute cyanide wastewater, such as electroplating wastes. In batch treatment operations, sodium hypochlorite has been used to treat more concentrated cyanide wastes, such as silver cyanide plating solutions. Toxic cyanide is oxidized to cyanate () that is not toxic, idealized as follows:
:
Sodium hypochlorite is commonly used as a biocide in industrial applications to control slime and bacteria formation in water systems used at power plants, pulp and paper mills, etc., in solutions typically of 10–15% by weight.
Endodontics
Sodium hypochlorite is the medicament of choice due to its efficacy against pathogenic organisms and pulp digestion in endodontic therapy. Its concentration for use varies from 0.5% to 5.25%. At low concentrations it dissolves mainly necrotic tissue; at higher concentrations, it also dissolves vital tissue and additional bacterial species. One study has shown that Enterococcus faecalis was still present in the dentin after 40 minutes of exposure of 1.3% and 2.5% sodium hypochlorite, whereas 40 minutes at a concentration of 5.25% was effective in E. faecalis removal. In addition to higher concentrations of sodium hypochlorite, longer time exposure and warming the solution (60 °C) also increases its effectiveness in removing soft tissue and bacteria within the root canal chamber. A hypochlorite incident is an immediate reaction of severe pain, followed by edema, haematoma, and ecchymosis as a consequence of the solution escaping the confines of the tooth and entering the periapical space. This may be caused by binding or excessive pressure on the irrigant syringe, or it may occur if the tooth has an unusually large apical foramen.
Nerve agent neutralization
At the various nerve agent (chemical warfare nerve gas) destruction facilities throughout the United States, 0.5–2.5% sodium hypochlorite is used to remove all traces of nerve agent or blister agent from Personal Protection Equipment after an entry is made by personnel into toxic areas.
0.5–2.5% sodium hypochlorite is also used to neutralize any accidental releases of the nerve agent in the toxic areas.
Lesser concentrations of sodium hypochlorite are used similarly in the Pollution Abatement System to ensure that no nerve agent is released into the furnace flue gas.
Reduction of skin damage
Dilute bleach baths have been used for decades to treat moderate to severe eczema in humans. Still, it has not been clear why they work. One of the reasons why bleach helps is that eczema can frequently result in secondary infections, especially from bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus, which makes managing it difficult. Staphylococcus aureus infection is related to the pathogenesis of eczema and AD. Bleach baths are one method for lowering the risk of staph infections in people with eczema. The antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties of sodium hypochlorite contribute to the reduction of harmful bacteria on the skin and the reduction of inflammation, respectively. According to work published by researchers at the Stanford University School of Medicine in November 2013, a very dilute (0.005%) solution of sodium hypochlorite in water was successful in treating skin damage with an inflammatory component caused by radiation therapy, excess sun exposure or aging in laboratory mice. Mice with radiation dermatitis given daily 30-minute baths in bleach solution experienced less severe skin damage and better healing and hair regrowth than animals bathed in water. Nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) is known to play a critical role in inflammation, aging, and response to radiation. The researchers found that if NF-κB activity was blocked in elderly mice by bathing them in bleach solution, the animals' skin began to look younger, going from old and fragile to thicker, with increased cell proliferation. The effect diminished after the baths were stopped, indicating that regular exposure was necessary to maintain skin thickness.
Safety
Dilute sodium hypochlorite solutions (as in household bleach) are irritating to mainly the skin and respiratory tract. Short-term skin contact with household bleach may cause dryness of the skin.
It is estimated that there are about 3,300 accidents needing hospital treatment caused by sodium hypochlorite solutions each year in British homes (RoSPA, 2002).
Oxidation and corrosion
Sodium hypochlorite is a strong oxidizer. Oxidation reactions are corrosive. Solutions burn the skin and cause eye damage, especially when used in concentrated forms. Despite this, sodium hypochlorite solutions are not classified as oxidizers by the NFPA as "sodium hypochlorite solutions do not readily yield oxygen or other oxidizing gases and do not initiate or promote combustion of combustible materials".
Household bleach and pool chlorinator solutions are typically stabilized by a significant concentration of lye (caustic soda, NaOH) as part of the manufacturing reaction. This additive will by itself cause caustic irritation or burns due to defatting and saponification of skin oils and destruction of tissue. The slippery feel of bleach on the skin is due to this process.
Storage hazards
Contact of sodium hypochlorite solutions with metals may evolve flammable hydrogen gas. Containers may explode when heated due to the release of chlorine gas.
Hypochlorite solutions are corrosive to common container materials such as stainless steel The study showed that indoor air concentrations significantly increase (8–52 times for chloroform and 1–1170 times for carbon tetrachloride, respectively, above baseline quantities in the household) during the use of bleach containing products.
In particular, mixing hypochlorite bleaches with amines (for example, cleaning products that contain or release ammonia, ammonium salts, urea, or related compounds and biological materials such as urine) produces chloramines.
Bleach can react violently with hydrogen peroxide and produce oxygen gas:
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Explosive reactions or byproducts can also occur in industrial and laboratory settings when sodium hypochlorite is mixed with diverse organic compounds.
Environmental impact
In spite of its strong biocidal action, sodium hypochlorite per se has limited environmental impact, since the hypochlorite ion rapidly degrades before it can be absorbed by living beings.
However, one major concern arising from sodium hypochlorite use is that it tends to form persistent chlorinated organic compounds, including known carcinogens, that can be absorbed by organisms and enter the food chain. These compounds may be formed during household storage and use as well as during industrial use.