Sinhala language

Sinhala ( ; Sinhala: , , ), sometimes called Sinhalese ( ), is an Indo-Aryan language primarily spoken by the Sinhalese people of Sri Lanka, who make up the largest ethnic group on the island, numbering about 16 million. It is also the first language of about 2 million other Sri Lankans, as of 2001. It is written in the Sinhalese script.

The language has two main varieties, written and spoken, and is a notable example of the linguistic phenomenon known as diglossia.

Sinhala is one of the official and national languages of Sri Lanka. Along with Pali, it played a major role in the development of Theravada Buddhist literature.

Early forms of the Sinhalese language are attested to as early as the 3rd century BCE. The language of these inscriptions, still retaining long vowels and aspirated consonants, is a Prakrit similar to Magadhi, a regional associate of the Middle-Indian Prakrits that had been spoken during the lifetime of the Buddha. The most closely related languages to Sinhalese are the Vedda language and the Maldivian languages; the former is an endangered indigenous creole still spoken by a minority of Sri Lankans, which mixes Sinhalese with an isolate of unknown origin. Old Sinhalese borrowed various aspects of Vedda into its main Indo-Aryan substrate.

thumb|There are 1,500 poems written in the 6th–10th centuries on the [[Sigiriya Mirror Wall. These poems are believed to have been composed by pilgrims who came to visit the Buddhist monastery of Sigiriya, which was active at this time.]]

thumb|Letters of the [[Sinhala script|Sinhalese script]]

Etymology

Sinhala () is a Sanskrit term; the corresponding Middle Indo-Aryan (Eḷu) word is .

The name is a derivative of the Sanskrit word for 'lion' . The name is sometimes glossed as 'abode of lions', and attributed to a supposed former abundance of lions on the island.

History

According to the chronicle , written in Pali, Prince Vijaya of the Vanga Kingdom and his entourage merged in Sri Lanka with later settlers from the Pandya kingdom. In the following centuries, there was substantial immigration from Eastern India, including additional migration from the Vanga Kingdom (Bengal), as well as Kalinga and Magadha. This influx led to an admixture of features of Eastern Prakrits.

Stages of historical development

The development of Sinhala is divided into four epochs:

Elu Prakrit (3rd c. BCE to 4th c. CE)
Proto-Sinhala (4th c. CE to 8th c. CE)
Medieval Sinhala (8th c. CE to 13th c. CE)
Modern Sinhala (13th c. CE to the present)

Phonetic development

The most important phonetic developments of Sinhala include:

the loss of aspiration as a distinction for plosive consonants (e.g. "eating" corresponds to Sanskrit , Hindustani )
the loss of original vowel length distinction; long vowels in the modern language are found in loanwords (e.g. "exam" < Sanskrit ) or as a result of sandhi, either after elision of intervocalic consonants (e.g. "to put" < ) or in originally compound words.
the simplification of consonant clusters and geminate consonants into geminates and single consonants respectively (e.g. Sanskrit "time" > Helu > Modern Sinhala )
development of to and/or (e.g. / "moon" corresponds to Sanskrit ) and development of to (e.g. "web" corresponds to Sanskrit )
development of prenasalized consonants from Sanskrit nasal + voiced stops (as in )
retention of initial and , the latter only shared with Kashmiri (as in and "fit, proper" < Sanskrit )

Western vs. Eastern Prakrit features

According to Wilhelm Geiger, an example of a possible Western feature in Sinhala is the retention of initial which developed into in the Eastern languages (e.g. Sanskrit "twenty", Sinhala , Hindi ). This is disputed by Muhammad Shahidullah who says that Helu Prakrit branched off from the Eastern Prakrits prior to this change. He cites the edicts of Ashoka, no copy of which shows this sound change.

An example of an Eastern feature is the ending for masculine nominative singular (instead of Western ) in Helu. There are several cases of vocabulary doublets, one example being the words ("fly") and ("flea"), which both correspond to Sanskrit but stem from two regionally different Prakrit words (Western Prakrits) and (as in Eastern Prakrits like Pali).

Pre-1815 Sinhalese literature

In 1815, the island of Ceylon came under British rule. During the career of Christopher Reynolds as a Sinhalese lecturer at the School of African and Oriental Studies, University of London, he extensively researched the Sinhalese language and its pre-1815 literature. The Sri Lankan government awarded him the Sri Lanka Ranjana medal for his work. He wrote the 377-page An anthology of Sinhalese literature up to 1815, selected by the UNESCO National Commission of Ceylon

Substratum influence in Sinhala

According to Wilhelm Geiger, Sinhala has features that set it apart from other Indo-Aryan languages. Some of the differences can be explained by the substrate influence of the parent stock of the Vedda language. Sinhala has many words that are only found in Sinhala, or shared between Sinhala and Vedda and not etymologically derivable from Middle or Old Indo-Aryan. Possible examples include for leaf in Sinhala and Vedda (although others suggest a Dravidian origin for this word.), for pig in Vedda and offering in Sinhala. Other common words are for wild duck, and for stones (in toponyms used throughout the island, although others have also suggested a Dravidian origin). There are also high frequency words denoting body parts in Sinhala, such as for head, for leg, for neck and for thighs, that are derived from pre-Sinhalese languages of Sri Lanka. The oldest known Sinhala grammar, Sidatsan̆garavā, written in the 13th century CE, recognised a category of words that exclusively belonged to early Sinhala. The grammar lists (to see) and (fort or harbour) as belonging to an indigenous source. is the source of the name of the commercial capital Colombo.

South Dravidian substratum influence

The consistent left branching syntax and the loss of aspirated stops in Sinhala is attributed to a probable South Dravidian substratum effect. This has been explained by a period of prior bilingualism:

Influences from neighbouring languages

In addition to many Tamil loanwords, several phonetic and grammatical features also present in neighbouring Dravidian languages set modern spoken Sinhala apart from its Northern Indo-Aryan relatives. These features are evidence of close interactions with Dravidian speakers. Some of the features that may be traced to Dravidian influence are:

the loss of aspiration
the use of the attributive verb of "to say" as a subordinating conjunction with the meanings "that" and "if", e.g.:

European influence

As a result of about 3 centuries of colonial rule, interaction, settlement and assimilation, modern Sinhala contains some Portuguese, Dutch and English loanwords.

Influences on other languages

Macanese Patois or Macau Creole (known as to its speakers) is a creole language derived mainly from Malay, Sinhala, Cantonese, and Portuguese, which was originally spoken by the Macanese people of the Portuguese colony of Macau. It is now spoken by a few families in Macau and in the Macanese diaspora.

The language developed first mainly among the descendants of Portuguese settlers who often married women from Malacca and Sri Lanka rather than from neighbouring China, so the language had strong Malay and Sinhala influence from the beginning.

Accents and dialects

The Sinhala language has different types of variations which are commonly identified as dialects and accents. Among those variations, regional variations are prominent. Some of the well-known regional variations of Sinhala language are:

The Uva Province variation (Monaragala, Badulla).
The southern variation (Matara, Galle).
The up-country variation (Kandy, Matale).
The Sabaragamu variation (Kegalle, Balangoda).

Uva regional variation in relation to grammar

People from Uva province also have a unique linguistic variation in relation to the pronunciation of words. In general, Sinhala singular words are pluralized by adding suffixes like , , or . But when it comes to Monaragala, the situation is somewhat different as when nouns are pluralized a nasal sound is added.

A number of syntactic and morphological differences exist between the two varieties. The most apparent difference is the absence of subject-verb agreement in spoken Sinhala. Agreement is the hallmark of literary Sinhala, and is the sole characteristic used in determining whether a given example of Sinhala is in the spoken or literary variety. Other distinctions include:

The copula (), in equational sentences is required in literary but prohibited in spoken Sinhala.
The accusative and locative cases are missing in colloquial spoken Sinhala (but recovered in formal speech).

Writing system

thumb| () means "welcome", literally wishing one a long life

The Sinhala script, (), is based on the ancient Brahmi script, and is thus a Brahmic script along with most Indian scripts and many Southeast Asian scripts. The Sinhala script is closely related to Grantha script and Khmer script, but it has also taken some elements from the related Kadamba script.

The writing system for Sinhala is an abugida, where the consonants are written with letters while the vowels are indicated with diacritics () on those consonants, unlike alphabets like English where both consonants and vowels are full letters, or abjads like Urdu where vowels need not be written at all. Also, when a diacritic is not used, an "inherent vowel", either or , is understood, depending on the position of the consonant within the word. For example, the letter ක on its own indicates , realized as in stressed syllables and in unstressed syllables. The other monophthong vowels are written: කා , කැ , and කෑ (after the consonant); කි and කී (above the consonant); කු and කූ (below the consonant); කෙ and කේ (before the consonant); and lastly, කො and කෝ (surrounding the consonant). For simple without a following vowel, a vowel-cancelling diacritic called (, ) is used, creating ක් .

There are also a few diacritics for consonants, such as in special circumstances, although the tendency now is to spell words with the full letter ර , with a on whichever consonant has no vowel following it. One word that is still spelt with an "r" diacritic is ශ්‍රී, as in (). The "r" diacritic is the curved line under the first letter ("ශ" → "ශ්‍ර"). A second diacritic representing the vowel sound completes the word ("ශ්‍ර" → "ශ්‍රී").

Several of these diacritics occur in two or more forms, and the form used depends on the shape of the consonant letter. Vowels also have independent letters, but these are only used at the beginning of words where there is no preceding consonant to add a diacritic to.

The complete script consists of about 60 letters, 18 for vowels and 42 for consonants. However, only 57 (16 vowels and 41 consonants) are required for writing colloquial spoken Sinhala (). The rest indicate sounds that have been merged in the course of linguistic change, such as the aspirates, and are restricted to Sanskrit and Pali loan words. One letter (), representing the sound , is attested in the script, although only a few words using this letter are known ().

The Sinhala script is written from left to right, and is mainly used for Sinhala. It is also used for the liturgical languages Pali and Sanskrit, which are important in Buddhism and academic works. The alphabetic sequence is similar to those of other Brahmic scripts:

Phonology

Sinhala has a smaller consonant inventory than most Indo-Aryan languages, but simultaneously has a larger vowel inventory than most. As an insular Indo-Aryan language, it and Dhivehi have features divergent from rest of the Indo-Aryan languages. Sinhala's nasal consonants are unusual among Indo-Aryan languages for lacking the retroflex nasal while retaining nasals in the other four positions. Sinhala and Dhivehi are together unique for having prenasalised consonants, which are not found in any other Indo-Aryan language.

Consonants

Sinhala has prenasalised consonants, or 'half nasal' consonants, but has lost the distinction between aspirated and unaspirated stops. It still has the distinction between dental/alveolar and retroflex stops. A short homorganic nasal occurs before a voiced stop, it is both shorter than a nasal alone and shorter than a sequence of nasal plus stop. For example,

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Four-way contrast in Sinhala

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"

! rowspan="2" |

! colspan="2" | Front

! colspan="2" | Central

! colspan="2" | Back

! short

! long

! short

! long

! short

! long

! Close

! Mid

| ()

! Open

and have a largely complementary distribution, found primarily in stressed and unstressed syllables, respectively. However, there are certain contrasting pairs between the two phonemes, particularly between homographs ("shoulder") and ("to do"). In writing, and are both spelt without a vowel sign attached to the consonant letter, so the patterns of stress in the language must be used to determine the correct pronunciation. Stress is largely predictable and only contrastive between words in relatively few cases, so this does not present a problem for determining the pronunciation of a given word.

Nasalisation of vowels is common in certain environments, particularly before a prenasalised consonant. Nasalised and exist as marginal phonemes, only present in certain interjections. Words cannot end in nasals other than . Because of historical loss of the fricative in the suffix , at the end of a word behaves as its own syllable.

Stress

The first syllable of each word is stressed, with the exception of the verb ("to do") and all of its inflected forms where the first syllable is unstressed. Syllables using long vowels are always stressed. The remainder of the syllables are unstressed if they use a short vowel, unless they are immediately followed by one of: a CCV syllable, final (), final (), or a final consonant without a following vowel. The sound sequence is always stressed, except after the vowel sound () and not before a consonant without a following vowel.

Morphology

Nominal morphology

The main features marked on Sinhala nouns are case, number, definiteness and animacy.

Cases

Sinhala distinguishes several cases. The five primary cases are the nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and ablative. Some scholars also suggest that it has a locative and instrumental case. However, for inanimate nouns the locative and genitive, and instrumental and ablative, are identical. In addition, for animate nouns these cases formed by placing ("with the hand") and ("near") directly after the nominative.

The brackets with most of the vowel length symbols indicate the optional shortening of long vowels in certain unstressed syllables.

{| class="wikitable"

! rowspan="2" |

! colspan="2" | animate

! colspan="2" | inanimate

! singular || plural

! nominative

| miniha(ː)

| minissu

| rowspan="2" | potə

| rowspan="2" | pot

! accusative

| miniha(ː)wə

| minissu(nwə)

! dative

| miniha(ː)ʈə

| minissu(ɳ)ʈə

| potəʈə

| potwələʈə

! genitive

| miniha(ː)ge(ː)

| minissu(ŋ)ge(ː)

| rowspan="2" | pote(ː)

| rowspan="2" | potwələ

! locative

| miniha(ː) laᵑgə

| minissu(n) laᵑgə

! ablative

| miniha(ː)geŋ

| minissu(n)geŋ

| rowspan="2" | poteŋ

| rowspan="2" | potwaliŋ

! instrumental

| miniha(ː) atiŋ

| minissu(n) atiŋ

! vocative

| miniho(ː)

| minissuneː

| -

! Gloss

| 'man'

| 'men'

| 'book'

| 'books'

Number marking

Forming plurals in Sinhala is unpredictable. In Sinhala animate nouns, the plural is marked with -o(ː), a long consonant plus -u, or with -la(ː). Most inanimates mark the plural through disfixation. Loanwords from English mark the singular with ekə, and do not mark the plural. This can be interpreted as a singulative number.

{| class="wikitable"

! SG

| ammaː || deviyaː || horaː || potə || reddə || kantoːruvə || satiyə || bus ekə || paːrə

!PL

| amməla(ː) || deviyo(ː) || horu || pot || redi || kantoːru || sati || bus || paːrəval

!Gloss

| 'mother(s)'|| 'god(s)'|| 'thie(f/ves)'|| 'book(s)'|| 'cloth(es)'|| 'office(s)'|| 'week(s)'|| 'bus(es)'||'street(s)'

On the left hand side of the table, plurals are longer than singulars. On the right hand side, it is the other way round, with the exception of paːrə "street". [+Animate] lexemes are mostly in the classes on the left-hand side, while [-animate] lexemes are most often in the classes on the right hand.

Indefinite article

The indefinite article is for animates and for inanimates. The indefinite article exists only in the singular, where its absence marks definiteness. In the plural, (in)definiteness does not receive special marking.

Verbal morphology

Sinhala distinguishes three conjugation classes.

Spoken Sinhala does not mark person, number or gender on the verb (literary Sinhala does). In other words, there is no subject–verb agreement.

{| class="wikitable"

!rowspan=2|

!colspan=2| 1st class

!colspan=2| 2nd class

!colspan=2| 3rd class

! verb !! verbal adjective

! present (future)

| kanəwaː

| kanə

| arinəwaː

| arinə

| pipenəwaː

| pipenə

! past

| kæːwaː

| kæːwə

| æriyaː

| æriyə

| pipunaː

| pipunə

! anterior

| kaːlaː

| kaːpu

| ærəlaː

| ærəpu

| pipilaː

| pipicca

! simultaneous

| kanə kanə / ka kaa(spoken)

| arinə arinə / æra æra(spoken)

| pipenə pipenə/ pipi pipi(spoken)

! infinitive

| kannə/kanḍə

| arinnə/arinḍə

| pipennə/pipenḍə

! emphatic form

| kanneː

| arinneː

| pipenneː

! gloss

| eat

| open

| blossom

Syntax

Left-branching language (see branching), which means that determining elements are usually put in front of what they determine (see example below).
An exception to this is formed by statements of quantity which usually stand behind what they define.

SOV (subject–object–verb) word order, common to most left-branching languages.
As is common in left-branching languages, it has no prepositions, only postpositions (see Adposition).

Sinhala has no copula. There are two existential verbs, which are used for locative predications, but these verbs are not used for predications of class-membership or property-assignment, unlike English is.

There are almost no conjunctions as English that or whether, but only non-finite clauses that are formed by the means of participles and verbal adjectives.

Semantics

There is a four-way deictic system (which is rare): There are four demonstrative stems (see demonstrative pronouns):

"here, close to the speaker"
"there, close to the person addressed"
"there, close to a third person, visible"
"there, close to a third person, not visible"

Use of ()

Sinhalese has an all-purpose odd suffix () which when suffixed to a pronoun creates a formal and respectful tone in reference to a person. This is usually used in referring to politicians, nobles, and priests.

e.g. () – you (vocative, when addressing a minister, high-ranking official, or generally showing respect in public etc.)

Discourse

Sinhala is a pro-drop language: any arguments of a sentence can be omitted when they can be inferred from context. This is not only true for subject – as in Italian, for instance – but also objects and other parts of the sentence can be "dropped" in Sinhala if they can be inferred. In that sense, Sinhala can be called a "super pro-drop language", like Japanese.

References

Bibliography

Gair, James: Sinhala and Other South Asian Languages, New York 1998.

External links

Charles Henry Carter. A Sinhalese-English dictionary. Colombo: The "Ceylon Observer" Printing Works; London: Probsthain & Co., 1924.
Simhala Sabdakosa Karyamsaya. Sanksipta Simhala Sabdakosaya. Kolamba: Samskrtika Katayutu Pilibanda Departamentuva, 2007–2009.
Sinhala Dictionary and Language Translator – Madura Online English
Kapruka Sinhala dictionary

Sinhala language

Etymology

History

Stages of historical development

Phonetic development

Western vs. Eastern Prakrit features

Pre-1815 Sinhalese literature

Substratum influence in Sinhala

South Dravidian substratum influence

Influences from neighbouring languages

European influence

Influences on other languages

Accents and dialects

Uva regional variation in relation to grammar

Writing system

Phonology

Consonants

Stress

Morphology

Nominal morphology

Cases

Number marking

Indefinite article

Verbal morphology

Syntax

Semantics

Use of ()

Discourse

See also

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links