Shiva Sutras

The Śiva·sūtras, technically akṣara·samāmnāya, variously called ', pratyāhāra·sūtrāṇi, varṇa·samāmnāya, etc., refer to a set of fourteen aphorisms devised as an arrangement of the sounds of Sanskrit for the purposes of grammatical exposition as carried out by the grammarian Pāṇini in the Aṣṭādhyāyī.

Pāṇini himself uses the term akṣara·samāmnāya whereas the colloquial term "Shiva sutra" is a later development, as per claims by Nandikeśvara in his Kāśikā, that the god Śiva sounded his drum fourteen times to reveal these sounds to Pāṇini. They were either composed by Pāṇini to accompany his ' or predate him.

Text and notation

thumb|Mahesvara sutrani

a i u Ṇ
ṛ ḷ K
e o Ṅ
ai au C
ha ya va ra Ṭ
la Ṇ
ña ma ṅa ṇa na M
jha bha Ñ
gha ḍha dha Ṣ
ja ba ga ḍa da Ś
kha pha cha ṭha tha ca ṭa ta V
ka pa Y
śa ṣa sa R
ha L

Each verse consists of a group of basic Sanskrit phonemes (i.e. open syllables consisting either of initial vowels or consonants followed by the basic vowel "a") followed by a single 'dummy letter', or anubandha, conventionally rendered in upper case and named by Pāṇini.

The following table shows the Shiva Sutras in Devanāgarī Script and their transliteration into the well-used transliteration scheme of Indic characters by Latin scripts viz. ISO 15919, ITRANS, and IPA.

{| class="wikitable"

!ISO 15919 (Indic)

!Roman (ITRANS)

!IPA

!Devanagari

|1. a i u ṇ,

2. r̥ l̥ k,

3. ē ō ṅ,

4. ai au c,

5. ha ya va ra ṭ,

6. la ṇ,

7. ña ma ṅa ṇa na m,

8. jha bha ñ

9. gha ḍha dha ṣ

10. ja ba ga ḍa da ś

11. kha pha cha ṭha tha ca ṭa ta v

12. ka pa y

13. śa ṣa sa r

14. ha l

|1. a i u N,

2. R^i L^i k,

3. e o ~N,

4. ai au ch,

5. ha ya va ra T,

6. la N,

7. ~na ma ~Na Na na m,

8. jha bha ~n

9. gha Dha dha Sh

10. ja ba ga Da da sh

11. kha pha Cha Tha tha cha Ta ta v

12. ka pa y

13. sha Sha sa r

14. ha l

|1. ə ɪ u ɳ,

2. ɾɨ lɨ k,

3. eː oː ŋ,

4. əɪ əu t͡ʃ,

5. ɦə jə ʋə ɾə ʈ,

6. lə ɳ,

7. ɲə mə ŋə ɳə n̪ə m,

8. d͡ʒʰə bʰə ɲ

9. gʰə ɖʰə d̪ʰə ʂ

10. d͡ʒə bə gə ɖə d̪ə ʃ

11. kʰə pʰə t͡ʃʰə ʈʰə t̪ʰə t͡ʃə ʈə t̪ə ʋ

12. kə pə j

13. ʃə ʂə s̪ə ɾ

14. ɦə l

|१. अ इ उ ण्,

२. ऋ ऌ क्,

३. ए ओ ङ्,

४. ऐ औ च्,

५. ह य व र ट्,

६. ल ण्,

७. ञ म ङ ण न म्,

८. झ भ ञ्

९. घ ढ ध ष्

१०. ज ब ग ड द श्

११. ख फ छ ठ थ च ट त व्

१२. क प य्

१३. श ष स र्

१४. ह ल्

Scheme

This allows Pāṇini to refer to groups of phonemes with ', which consist of a phoneme-letter and an anubandha (and often the vowel a to aid pronunciation) and signify all of the intervening phonemes. Pratyāhāras are thus single syllables, but they can be declined (see Aṣṭādhyāyī 6.1.77 below). Hence the pratyāhāra aL refers to all phonemes (because it consists of the first phoneme of the first verse (a) and the last anubandha of the last verse (L)); aC refers to vowels (i.e., all of the phonemes before the anubandha C: i.e. a i u ṛ ḷ e o ai au); haL to consonants, and so on.

Issues

Note that some pratyāhāras are ambiguous. The anubandha Ṇ occurs twice in the list, which means that you can assign two different meanings to pratyāhāra aṆ (including or excluding ṛ, etc.); in fact, both of these meanings are used in the Aṣṭādhyāyī. On the other hand, the pratyāhāra haL is always used in the meaning "all consonants"—Pāṇini never uses pratyāhāras to refer to sets consisting of a single phoneme.

Combinations

From these 14 verses, a total of 280 pratyāhāras can be formed: 14*3 + 13*2 + 12*2 + 11*2 + 10*4 + 9*1 + 8*5 + 7*2 + 6*3 + 5*5 + 4*8 + 3*2 + 2*3 +1*1, minus 14 (as Pāṇini does not use single element pratyāhāras) minus 11 (as there are 11 duplicate sets due to h appearing twice); the second multiplier in each term represents the number of phonemes in each. But Pāṇini uses only 41 (with a 42nd introduced by later grammarians, raṆ=r l) pratyāhāras in the Aṣṭādhyāyī.

Arrangement

The Akṣarasamāmnāya puts phonemes with a similar manner of articulation together (so sibilants in 13 śa ṣa sa R, nasals in 7 ñ m ṅ ṇ n M). Economy is a major principle of their organization, and it is debated whether Pāṇini deliberately encoded phonological patterns in them (as they were treated in traditional phonetic texts called Prātiśakyas) or simply grouped together phonemes which he needed to refer to in the Aṣṭādhyāyī and which only secondarily reflect phonological patterns. Pāṇini does not use the Akṣarasamāmnāya to refer to homorganic stops, but rather the anubandha U: to refer to the palatals c ch j jh he uses cU.

Example

As an example, consider Aṣṭādhyāyī 6.1.77: ':

iK means i u ṛ ḷ,
iKaḥ is iK in the genitive case, so it means ' in place of i u ṛ ḷ;
yaṆ means the semivowels y v r l and is in the nominative, so iKaḥ yaṆ means: y v r l replace i u ṛ ḷ.
aC means all vowels, as noted above
aCi is in the locative case, so it means before any vowel.

Hence this rule replaces a vowel with its corresponding semivowel when followed by any vowel, and that is why ' together with ' makes '. To apply this rule correctly we must be aware of some of the other rules of the grammar, such as:

1.1.49 ' which says that the genitive case in a sutra signifies "in the place of"
1.1.50 ' which says that in a substitution, the element in the substitute series that most closely resembles the letter to be substituted should be used (e.g. y for i, r for ṛ etc.)
1.1.71 ' which says that a sequence with an element at the beginning (e.g. i) and an IT letter (e.g. K) at the end stands for the intervening letters (i.e. i u ṛ ḷ, because the Akṣarasamāmnāya sutras read ').

Also, rules can be debarred by other rules:

6.1.101 ' teaches that vowels (from the aK pratyāhāra) of the same quality come together to make a long vowel, so for instance ' and ' make ', not '. This ' rule takes precedence over the general ' rule mentioned above, because this rule is more specific.

Pratyāhāras

Despite the possible combinations seen above, here are the 41 pratyāhāras in actual use by Pāṇini:

{| class="wikitable sortable"

! Pratyāhāra !! Phoneme class !! Pāṇini's term !! Phonemes included

| || all sounds || ||

! colspan="4" style="text-align:center;" | Syllabic nuclei (vowels & syllabic liquids)

| || all syllabics || ||

| || simple syllabics || ||

| || monophthongs || ||

| || non-open syllabics || ||

| || close syllabics || ||

| || non-palatal close syllabics || ||

| || diphthongs || ||

| || short diphthongs || ||

| || long diphthongs || ||

! colspan="4" style="text-align:center;" | Consonants

| || all consonants || ||

| || voiced consonants || ||

| || non-glottal consonants || ||

| || stops & approximants || ||

| || resonants, || ||

| || resonants || ||

| || approximants || ||

| || consonants except || ||

| || voiced consonants except || ||

| || consonants except || ||

| || nasal stops || ||

| || stops except || ||

| || nasals except || || ṅ ṇ n

| || obstruents || ||

| || obstruents except || ||

| || oral stops || ||

| || voiced oral stops || ||

| || breathy voiced stops || ||

| || breathy voiced plosives || ||

| || modal voiced oral stops || ||

| || modal voiced plosives || ||

| || voiceless obstruents || ||

| || voiceless stops || ||

| || coronal voiceless stops || ||

| || voiceless unaspirated stops || ||

| || voiceless unaspirated obstruents || ||

| || fricatives || ||

| || voiceless fricatives || ||

! colspan="4" style="text-align:center;" | Other classes

| || voiced sounds || ||

| || voiced sonorants || ||

| || voiced continuants || ||

| || voiced median continuants || ||

| || non-open continuants || ||

Notes

Glossary

References

Bibliography

(Books I to VIII reflecting the original)

External links

[http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/siva-t.pdf] Paper by Paul Kiparsky on 'Economy and the Construction of the Śiva sūtras'
[http://kornai.com/Papers/mol2.pdf] Paper by András Kornai relating the Śiva sūtras to contemporary Feature Geometry.
[http://user.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/~petersen/paper/petersen_jolli_proof.pdf] Paper by Wiebke Petersen on 'A Mathematical Analysis of Pāṇini’s Śiva sūtras.'
[https://www.scribd.com/doc/81266812/Who-Inspired-Panini-Reconstructing-the-Hindu-and-Buddhist-Counter-Claims-Madhav-M-Deshpande] Paper by Madhav Deshpande on 'Who Inspired Pāṇini? Reconstructing the Hindu and Buddhist Counter-Claims.'