Sher Shah Suri (born Farid al-Din Khan; 1472 or 1486 – 22 May 1545), also known by his title Sultan Adil (), was the Sultan of Hindustan, as the first Sur Emperor, from 1540 until his death in 1545. Prior to his ascension, he also served as the ruler of Bihar (1530–1540) and Bengal (1538–1540). He established the Sur Empire after defeating the Mughal Empire and declaring Delhi his seat of power. The influence of his innovations and reforms extended far beyond his brief reign, being recognized as one of the greatest administrative rulers in India. Sher Shah is renowned as one of the most skillful Afghan generals in history, and by the end of his reign, his empire covered nearly all of Northern India.

Born between 1472 and 1486 and given the name Farid Khan, his early childhood saw him flee from home due to internal family strife. He pursued an education in Jaunpur, where his rise to power began after his father offered him a managerial position over his jagirs. Sher Shah effectively governed these territories, gaining a reputation for his reforms that brought prosperity to the region. However, due to family intrigues, he eventually relinquished his position over the jagirs. Sher Shah then moved to Agra, where he stayed until his father's death. This event allowed him to return to his family's jagirs and take control, thereby solidifying his leadership and furthering his rise to power.

Sher Shah spent time in Agra after the Mughals gained power, observing the leadership of Babur. After leaving Agra, he entered the service of the governor of Bihar. Following the governor's death in 1528, Sher Shah obtained a high position in Bihar and, by 1530, became the regent and de facto ruler of the kingdom. He engaged in conflicts with the local nobility and the Sultanate of Bengal. In 1538, while Mughal Emperor Humayun was engaged in military campaigns elsewhere, Sher Shah overran the Bengal Sultanate and established the Suri dynasty. He defeated the Mughals and drove them out of India, establishing himself as emperor in Delhi. As ruler of Hindustan, Sher Shah led numerous military campaigns, conquering Punjab, Malwa, Marwar, Mewar, and Bundelkhand. A brilliant strategist, Sher Shah was both a gifted administrator and a capable general. His reorganization of the empire and strategic innovations laid the foundations for future Mughal emperors, notably Akbar. Sher Shah died in May 1545 while besieging Kalinjar fort. Following his death, the empire descended into civil war until it was eventually re-conquered by the Mughals.

During his rule as Emperor of the Sur Empire, Sher Shah implemented numerous economic, administrative, and military reforms. He issued the first Rupiya, organized the postal system of the Indian subcontinent, as well as extending the Grand Trunk Road from Chittagong in Bengal to Kabul in Afghanistan, significantly improving trade. Sher Shah further developed Humayun's Dina-panah city, renaming it Shergarh, and revived the historical city of Pataliputra, which had been in decline since the 7th century CE, as Patna. Additionally, he embarked on several military campaigns that restored Afghan prominence in India.

Name and title

His birth name was Farid al-Din Khan. After 1526, he was conferred the title Sher Khan, and following his ascension as Sultan of Hindustan in 1540, he became known as Sher Shah. His full title was Al‑Sultān al‑ʿĀdil Abū’l‑Muzzafar Farīd al‑Dunyā wa’d‑Dīn Sher Shah Khallada Allāhu Mulkahu wa Saltanahu.

His surname 'Suri' was taken from his Pashtun Sur tribe. He was a distant kinsman to Babur's brother-in-law, Mir Shah Jamal, who remained loyal to Humayun. The name Sher (means lion in Persian and tiger in Indo-Persian) was conferred upon him for his courage when, as a young man, he killed a tiger that leapt suddenly upon the governor of Bihar, Behar Khan Lohani.

Early life and origin (1472/1486–1497)

Sher Shah was born in Sasaram, located in present-day Bihar, India. His birthdate is disputed, with some accounts stating he was born in 1472, while others claim 1486. He was of Pashtun Afghan origin, belonging to the Sur clan.

Sher Shah's grandfather, Ibrahim Khan Sur, migrated from the region of Roh in present-day Afghanistan in the reign of Bahlol Lodi and began his career as a horse trader, eventually becoming a landlord (Jagirdar) in the Narnaul area of present-day Haryana. He represented his patron, Jamal Khan Lodi Sarangkhani, who assigned him several villages in Hissar Firoza. Sher Shah's father, Hasan Khan Sur, entered the service of Jamal Khan. In 1494, Jamal Khan was promoted and established in Bihar by Sikandar Khan Lodi. At Jamal Khan's request, Sikandar granted Hasan the jagirs of Khwaspur, Sasaram, and Hajipur in Bihar.

Hasan had several wives and fathered over eight sons, with Nizam Khan being Sher Shah's only full brother. His step-brothers were Sulaiman, Ahmad and Muda who were from a concubine. One of Sher Shah's stepmothers was cruel to him, and Hasan, being too submissive to his wife, was unable to intervene. As a result, Sher Shah sought refuge with Jamal Khan, aiming to gain experience and further his education.

Sher Shah pursued his education in Jaunpur for several years, studying subjects such as history and religion. On one occasion, Hasan visited Jamal Khan in Jaunpur and encountered some of Sher Shah's relatives, who spoke of Sher Shah's potential for future greatness. Impressed by these accounts, Hasan invited Sher Shah to manage his domains in 1497.

Rise to power (1497–1528)

thumb|alt=An imaginative sketch of Sher Shah Suri|Imagined sketch of Sher Shah Suri by Afghan artist [[Abdul Ghafoor Breshna]]

Sher Shah accepted his father's offer and embarked on implementing numerous reforms. His early administrative career focused on combating corruption. One of Sher Shah's significant reforms as administrator of his father's domains was the assessment of land revenues, along with defining and establishing commissions for tax collectors. However, despite these reforms, Sher Shah faced resentment and intrigue from his stepmother, who had initially forced him to flee, and his step-brothers. This opposition eventually led to Sher Shah resigning from his post in 1518, after serving as manager for 21 years. Following his resignation, he initially engaged in banditry before departing for Agra, which was under the rule of the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate and gained the support of Daulat Khan Lodi.

Sher Shah remained in Agra until his father's death, after which he received his father's jagirs from Sultan Ibrahim Khan Lodi which were initially held by his step-brother Sulaiman Khan. Returning to his jagirs in 1520–21, Sher Shah began administering them while in the service of Behar Khan Lohani. Conflict emerged however over the split of his father's land between his brothers, and Muhammad Khan Sur initially drove Sher Shah from the estate by defeating one of his governors. In 1526, the Lodis were overthrown, bringing the Mughals to power under Babur. During this time, Behar Khan Lohani established an independent state in Bihar and assumed the title of Sultan Muhammad. With the aid of Junaid Khan, the Mughal governor of Jaunpur, Sher Shah joined Mughal service. In April 1527, after Babur launched a campaign against the Afghans in Bihar, Sher Shah distinguished himself, and his estates were restored in 1528.

With his jagirs secured, Sher Shah accompanied Junaid Khan to Agra, where he met Mughal Emperor Babur. During this time, Sher Shah was conferred the title of Sher Khan after killing a tiger that leapt upon the ruler of Bihar. Sher Shah remained in Agra, observing Mughal military organization and administration.

Once, while dining with Mughal Emperor Babur, Sher Shah encountered a dish he was unfamiliar with eating. In response, he drew his dagger, cut the dish into smaller pieces, and then ate it with a spoon. Babur took notice and informed his minister, Mir Khalifa:

Suspecting a rising plot against him, Sher Shah departed Agra and left Mughal service, returning to his Jagirs in 1528. He sought refuge under the protection of Sultan Muhammad of Bihar. Upon Sher Shah's arrival, he was warmly received and appointed as the guardian of Muhammad's son, Jalal Khan.

Reign in Bihar (1528–1538/1540)

In October 1528, Sultan Mohammad of Bihar died, and his queen, Dudu Bibi, assumed the role of regent. Sher Shah was appointed as her deputy governor, allowing him to begin consolidating his position in the region through a myriad of military and administrative reforms. These reforms significantly strengthened his position, making him one of the most influential Afghan leaders in India.

In 1529, Sher Shah anticipated joining Mahmud Lodi, the younger brother of Ibrahim Lodi, in his insurrection against the Mughals that rallied most of the significant Afghan leaders in India. Sher Shah, however, recognized the division among the Afghans and Mahmud's incompetence, thus refusing to aid Mahmud. Intending for the unification of all Afghan leaders, Mahmud marched with his army to Sasaram, persuading Sher Shah to join the rebellion. Hesitatingly, Sher Shah accompanied the expedition with his own set of men, and the insurrection initially succeeded, capturing Ghazipur and Banaras. However, upon the arrival of Mughal forces, Mahmud Lodi abandoned the army. After this, many Afghan nobles including Sher Shah submitted to Babur. In early 1530, the death of Dudu Bibi enabled Sher Shah to become the regent for Jalal Khan, effectively making him the de facto ruler of Bihar.

Despite his growing power, many of the Lohani nobles opposed Sher Shah's dominance. Although he offered to share power, the Lohani nobles rejected his proposal and instead fled to Bengal with Jalal Khan, seeking the support of Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah, the ruler of the Bengal Sultanate. Consequently, Sher Shah became the sole ruler of Bihar. However, he did not adopt any grand titles, preferring to style himself as Hazrat-i-Ala.

Acquisition of Chunar (1530)

thumb|right|alt=Depiction of Chunar fort from its northern view across the Ganges River|View of Chunar fort from the north across the Ganges river

Taj Khan, the governor of Chunar, was assassinated by his stepson. In the aftermath, his wealthy widow, Lad Malika, sought a protector to secure her position. Recognizing Sher Shah's growing influence, she agreed to marry him. Through these negotiations, which were kept secret from Taj Khan's sons, Sher Shah gained control of Chunar. This acquisition significantly bolstered Sher Shah's power and influence in the region, as he now controlled a significant fort and a large treasury.

First conflict with the Mughals (1530–1532)

thumb|right|alt=Depiction of Mughal Emperor Humayun|Portrait of Mughal Emperor Humayun seated in a garden

The death of Mughal Emperor Babur in December 1530 saw the Afghan insurrection rejuvenated, and Mahmud Lodi again returned. Sher Shah immediately ignored Mahmud's attempts of garnering Sher Shah's aid until he was promised all of Southern Bihar. After further being visited by Mahmud, Sher Shah acquiesced. The combined Afghan forces marched on Banaras and Jaunpur, with Junaid Khan withdrawing to Agra. The Afghan forces followed up their victories by seizing Lucknow.

Humayun, entrenched in a siege of Kalinjar, immediately withdrew, crossing the Ganges and began a battle against Mahmud Lodi at Dadrah in 1531. The Afghan forces were decisively defeated, and the coalition was shattered. Mahmud Lodi fled to Orrisa, while Sher Shah emerged on top by keeping Southern Bihar.

Humayun followed up his victory by besieging Chunar, a fortress owned by Sher Shah, in September 1532. The siege continued for over four months to no avail. In order to make peace, Sher Shah offered his loyalty to the Mughals on the condition that he remained in control of Chunar, offering to send his third son, Qutb Khan, as hostage. Humayun accepted and lifted the siege in December 1532, returning to Agra due to the rising threat of Bahadur Shah, the ruler of the Gujarat Sultanate. Humayun did not wish to split up his forces under the command of a noble to continue the siege, as this would split his strength, additionally giving reason for peace to be established.

Lohani conflict and Bengal campaign (1533–1537)

Makhdum Alam, the administrator of Hajipur, refused to recognize Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah as the Sultan of Bengal, accusing him of assassinating the previous Sultan, Alauddin Firuz. He formed an alliance with Sher Shah, who saw this as an opportunity to crush the power of the Lohani nobles allied with Mahmud Shah. Mahmud Shah sent several expeditions against Sher Shah, which were all defeated. Makhdum Alam however, was killed, and his estates fell to Sher Shah upon his death. In 1534, Mahmud Shah sent an army of artillery, cavalry and infantry under Ibrahim Khan to conquer Bihar, with Jalal Khan accompanying the campaign. However, Sher Shah launched a sudden attack on the combined forces of the Lohani chiefs of Bihar and Mahmud Shah of Bengal, defeating them at Surajgarh in March 1534, winning a decisive victory. Ibrahim Khan was killed during the battle, and Jalal Khan was forced to retreat to Bengal. Following the victory, Sher Shah consolidated his control over Bihar.

Between 1536 and 1537, Sher Shah followed up his victories by invading Bengal and defeating Mahmud Shah numerous times, occupying all lands west of the Teliagarhi pass. Mahmud Shah repeatedly requested the Portuguese to aid him, which they did by fortifying the Teliaghari and Sakrigali passes. Sher Shah, however, out-flanked the combined armies and reached Gauda by way of Jharkhand. Mahmud Shah immediately capitulated, and was forced to pay over 13,000,000 gold coins, and cede territory up to Sakrigali.

Second Bengal campaign and conflict with the Mughals (1537–1540)

thumb|alt=Capture of Rohtasgarh by Sher Shah Suri|Depiction of Sher Shah's capture of Rohtasgarh fort through stratagem

Eager to conquer the Bengal Sultanate, Sher Shah prepared for another invasion, and an opportunity came when Mahmud Shah failed to send annual tribute, forcing him to seek refuge in Gaur and frantically ask Humayun for aid. In response, Humayun mobilized a Mughal army in July 1537, and advanced towards Chunar. The Mughals reached the fort in November 1537 and laid siege to it. The siege lasted over six months before the fort finally fell. Following this, Sher Shah began a second invasion into Bengal, seizing Rohtasgarh in March 1538 through stratagem. He used Rohtasgarh to situate Afghan families and loot he obtained during the war. Following up his victory, Sher Shah besieged Gauda, which fell in April 1538. Split detachments would also be sent to conquer Chittagong.

Children and succession

thumb|right|alt=Depiction of Islam Shah Suri|Illustration of Islam Shah Suri, son and successor of Sher Shah

Sher Shah's oldest son, Qutb Khan, was killed in a battle against Mughals in Malwa. Sher Shah had two surviving sons upon his death, Jalal Khan (known as Islam Shah Suri), and Adil Khan. Conflict emerged after Sher Shah's death and Islam Shah was victorious after a battle at Agra, with Adil Khan fleeing and his fate unknown. Islam Shah would rule until his death in 1553, being succeeded by his minor son, Firuz Shah Suri who was assassinated by Muhammad Adil Shah, a nephew of Sher Shah from his full brother, Nizam Khan.

The turbulence of succession and the instability afterward in the reign of Adil Shah unraveled the Sur Empire, including the rise of many military adventurers such as Taj Khan Karrani in Bihar, Ibrahim Shah Suri in Bayana, Sikandar Shah Suri in Lahore, and Muhammad Khan Sur in Bengal.

Initially having aborted an attempt against Islam Shah in 1553, Humayun returned to invade India. Capitalizing off of the instability to invade the Punjab, Mughal forces seized Lahore without opposition due to the civil war, and Afghan forces were defeated at Machhiwara. Sikander Shah attempted to give battle to Humayun at Sirhind before being defeated as well, allowing the Mughals to re-occupy Delhi.

Legacy and reforms

Currency

thumb|right|alt=Coinage of Sher Shah Suri|Rupiya released by Sher Shah Suri, 1538–1545 CE, was the first [[Rupee]]

The system of tri-metalism that came to characterize Mughal coinage was introduced by Sher Shah. While the term rūpya had previously been used as a generic term for any silver coin, during his rule the term rūpee came to be used as the name for a silver coin of a standard weight of 178 grains, which was the precursor of the modern rupee. The Rupee is today used as the national currency in India, Indonesia, the Maldives, Mauritius, Nepal, Pakistan, the Seychelles, and Sri Lanka. Gold coins called the Mohur weighing 169 grains and copper coins called Paisa were also minted during his reign. By 1540, his standing army consisted of over 150,000 cavalrymen, 25,000 infantrymen, and over 5,000 war elephants.

Social justice

Sher Shah was renowned for his social justice. Courts were held by Qadis, with Sher Shah himself observing civil cases. Hindus settled their disputes in Panchayat assemblies, while in criminal cases, nobody was exempt from the law of the empire. The criminal law of the empire was extremely harsh to deter others from committing crimes out of fear of the repercussions. Sher Shah imposed heavy punishments on individuals in high posts, including government officials.

Sher Shah's reputation grew as he became known for being a formidable and just ruler, to the point where merchants could travel and sleep in deserts without fear of being harassed by bandits or robbers. His soldiers acted as police, with the duty of finding thieves and robbers. Sher Shah Suri also implemented the reform of self-responsibility, assigning officials the duty to find culprits in cases such as murder; if they failed, they would be held responsible and hanged. Historians praise these reforms for their effectiveness.

Buildings

thumb|right|alt=Entrance to the Kabul gate of Rohtas fort|The Kabuli gate of Rohtas fort

Sher Shah built several monuments, including Rohtas Fort (now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Pakistan), many structures in the Rohtasgarh Fort in Bihar, the Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna, the Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque inside the Purana Qila complex in Delhi, and the Sher Mandal, an octagonal building also inside the Purana Qila complex, which later served as the library of Humayun. He built a new city, Bhera, in present-day Pakistan in 1545, including within it a grand masjid named after him.

Sher Shah was responsible for greatly rebuilding and modernizing the Grand Trunk Road, a major artery that runs all the way from modern-day Bangladesh to Afghanistan. Caravanserais (inns) and mosques were built, and trees were planted along the entire stretch on both sides of the road to provide shade to travelers. Wells were also dug, especially along the western section. He also established an efficient postal system, with mail being carried by relays of horse riders.

The mausoleum of Sher Shah Suri was described as one of the most beautiful monuments in India due to its grandeur and dignity. British archaeologist Cunningham was even inclined to prefer it over the Taj Mahal.

Trade

Among his reforms while consolidating the empire, Sher Shah abolished taxes at the borders of provinces to invigorate trade throughout India. Only two levies remained in place: one on goods brought into the country and another when goods were sold. As a result, customs duties were entirely removed.

Sher Khan (1962), an Indian Hindi-language action film by Radhakant starring Kamaljeet in the titular role along with Kumkum, is ostensibly based on the emperor's life. Shershah Suri, a television show about the emperor, was aired on DD National by Doordarshan, the Indian national public broadcaster.

The Jungle Book, written by Rudyard Kipling, has its antagonist Shere Khan named after Sher Shah Suri.

See also

  • Isa Khan Niazi
  • Khalji dynasty
  • List of rulers of Bengal
  • Jahangir Kabir (politician)
  • History of Bangladesh
  • History of India
  • Shershabadia

References

Notes

Citations

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