Sejong (; May 15, 1397 – April 8, 1450), commonly known as Sejong the Great (), was the fourth monarch of the Koreanic state Joseon. He ruled from 1418 to his death in 1450. He is widely regarded as the greatest king in Korean history, and is particularly remembered for the creation of Hangul, the native alphabet of the Korean language.
Sejong was born the third son of the future King Taejong (). He was regarded as gifted, moreso than the troubled crown prince Grand Prince Yangnyŏng. In mid-1418, Yangnyŏng was deposed and Sejong made the crown prince. Months later, Taejong abdicated and Sejong was crowned king. Taejong served as king emeritus until his death in 1422.
Sejong's reign was marked by major developments in science, technology, medicine, agriculture, and the arts. Many such efforts Sejong not only oversaw, but actively participated in. In 1420, Sejong had the government research organization Hall of Worthies reestablished. It oversaw such projects as the creations of the first native Korean calendar , the 365-volume medical text ', and the agricultural text Nongsa chiksŏl.
In 1419, Sejong launched the successful Ōei Invasion against the Japanese Tsushima Island. This was followed by decades of peace and trade between Korea and Japan. Sejong also expanded the northern borders of Korea to roughly its current extent by launching military campaigns against and assimilating the raiding Jurchens, although this region would remain problematic. He also maintained positive relations with Joseon's suzerain Ming while still asserting Korean autonomy. Sejong made significant tax and land reforms, which resulted in increases in agricultural production and a reduction in tax rates, without significant impact to tax income. He also led a massive expansion in the influence of Confucianism in Korea and decrease in the influence of Buddhism. Despite his anti-Buddhist policies, he was privately Buddhist and increasingly vocalized his faith, which put him at odds with the Confucianists of his court.
Sejong had recurring and worsening health issues for much of his life. Beginning in 1445, he had the crown prince, the future King Munjong (), handle the daily affairs of government. Sejong died at the age of 52 in 1450 and is buried in the tomb Yeongneung.
Sejong is regarded as an icon of Korean culture in South Korea, where he has received numerous tributes. Sejong City bears his name. Several North Korean texts reportedly skeptically evaluate Sejong as a feudal oppressor.
Names and titles
"Sejong" is the name by which he is most widely known. It is a temple name: a posthumous title that was given to him on the 19th day, 3rd month of 1450. Historian Gari Ledyard roughly translates its meaning as "epochal ancestor". Sejong's birth name was Yi To ().
After his death, Ming granted him the title of Changhŏn (; Pinyin: ). His full posthumous title was Great King Changhŏn Yŏngmun Yemu Insŏng Myŏnghyo ().
Sejong was reportedly popularly called the "Yao-Shun East of the Sea" (). The name references the legendary wise Chinese sage kings Yao and Shun. "East of the Sea" refers to Korea.
Early life
Yi To was born on the 10th day, 4th month of 1397 in Chunsubang, Hanyang (Seoul), Joseon as the third son of father Grand Prince Chŏngan and Princess Chŏngnyŏng. That year, he began to be tutored by scholar-official .
Heir to the throne
By 1406, Taejong had decided that he wished to eventually abdicate the throne to a successor while he was still alive, to reduce the probability of a succession crisis upon his death. Taejong had twelve sons, the oldest of which was Grand Prince Yangnyŏng. Yangnyŏng was designated the successor.
A number of anecdotes indicate that Yangnyŏng was considered to have behavioral issues. Yangnyŏng disobeyed the king frequently, neglected studying, and womanized. Taejong strictly and sternly managed Yangnyŏng's education. Historian Kim Young Soo argued that this may have pushed Yangnyŏng away from studying. The king also disliked the companions of the grand prince; on several occasions they were banned from the palace for their behavior. By contrast, various anecdotes in the ' indicate that Ch'ungnyŏng was seen as intelligent and studious by the king and various members of the court. The king frequently praised Ch'ungnyŏng and compared him favorably to Yangnyŏng, to the latter's chagrin. On several occasions, Ch'ungnyŏng chastised the misbehavior of Yangnyŏng, which only fueled the latter's resentment, although on several occasions Yangnyŏng acknowledged his brother's better judgement. The two developed a bitter rivalry.
In early 1417, it emerged that Yangnyŏng had had an affair with a woman named Ŏri (), a concubine of scholar-official Kwak Sŏn (). The incident enraged and embarrassed Taejong. Yangnyŏng angrily accused Ch'ungnyŏng of having informed their father of the affair.
In early 1418, the younger brother of Ch'ungnyŏng, , was deathly ill. Ch'ungnyŏng reportedly stayed by his brother's bed day and night, reading medical texts and helping with the treatment. Sŏngnyŏng died on the 4th day, 2nd month of that year. Historian Yoon Jeong argues that, around this time, Taejong worked on building consensus among his cabinet to have Yangnyŏng removed from his position. Their relationship reached its lowest point in the 5th month of that year, after Yangnyŏng sent a letter to his father in which he defended his actions and questioned his father's judgment.
On the 3rd day, 6th month of 1418, Taejong and his ministers held a meeting on whether to depose Yangnyŏng.) in order to access Joseon. Japanese leaders that showed greater aptitude in preventing piracy were granted greater rank and trade with Joseon. Historian Kenneth R. Robinson argued that Joseon had a unique and flexible relationship with the fractured "Japan" (Japan was not a strongly unified political entity by this time) that changed over time. He argued Joseon borrowed elements of China's tributary system for its own purposes.
Japanese leaders frequently requested Buddhist gifts from Joseon. For example, the Ōuchi clan persistently requested the wood printing blocks of the Tripitaka Koreana, to the chagrin of Sejong's Confucianist court. The blocks were valuable and expensive to produce copies of. Eventually, the Ōuchi clan was given printed copies of the Tripitaka instead, which were still expensive to produce.
Northern frontier and Jurchen relations
Sejong continued the work of his predecessors in pacifying and conquering the northern frontier. It was under Sejong that Korea's northern borders were expanded to reach their approximate current extent. The northern frontier was of strategic importance, as it served as the border between Korea and China, and because the local Jurchens would frequently raid Korean settlements. In 1432, the Hulun Udeha tribe (Eastern Jurchens) attacked Joseon.
Sejong launched military campaigns against the Jurchens and established garrison forces to pacify local populations. He sent one such campaign in 1433, with and in command, and another in 1437 under Kim Chongsŏ. The latter campaign resulted in the creation of and the current northern borders of Korea.
Sejong also opened trade with Jurchens in order to discourage raids. This was possibly, in part, motivated by their previous successes in using trade to discourage Japanese piracy. From 1437 to 1443, the Hulun Udeha tribe that had previously attacked Joseon sent at least 127 trade missions to the Joseon court. Over time, restrictions and limits were applied on Jurchen trade missions to Joseon. Such trade was intended to provide Jurchens economic alternatives to raiding. Jurchens that aided Joseon were rewarded with rank and access to trade. His administration also moved Korean settlers to conquered regions and encouraged intermarriage between Jurchens and Koreans to deter conflict. During Sejong's reign, the entire population of Hamgyong Province north of Tanchon was described as the descendants of Jurchen hyanghwa. They eventually became full citizens of Joseon. Jurchens were also granted nominal appointments to the Korean military. These appointments did not require military service; they were instead meant to assimilate by integrating Jurchens into the Joseon bureaucracy.
Historians have evaluated Sejong's efforts in settling and pacifying the region as having mixed success. Korean settlers struggled to make a living in the frontier and often abandoned the land. The northern regions would continue to pose threats to Joseon's security after Sejong's reign.
China–Korea relations
Historian Shih-Shan Henry Tsai argued that the reign of Sejong saw an improvement in Sino-Korean relations and that "Sino-Korean borders became marketplaces instead of war zones". Sejong and the Ming Yongle Emperor often exchanged books and letters on various topics, including religion, philosophy, history, science, and technology. In 1423 alone, Sejong sent 10,000 tribute horses to Yongle. In return, Sejong received a huge quantity of silver, brocade, and silk. Sejong had the gate Yŏngŭnmun erected in Seoul in 1429 as a symbolic place of greeting for arriving Chinese envoys.
Sejong sought to balance the Joseon policy of sadae (Confucian deference to China) with the need for flexible governance and Korean autonomy. For example, a number of historians have argued that the semi-tributary relationships Sejong maintained with Japanese and Jurchen groups were technically forbidden by the Chinese tributary system. Under that system, tributaries to China could only interact with each other as equals, but Sejong chose to forego strict adherence to this for Joseon's benefit. Also, in at least one occasion early in his reign, Sejong expressed reluctance to perform ritual sacrifices to pray for rain; such rituals were seen as only appropriate for the Chinese emperor. Despite this, he eventually began performing the rituals. By the end of his reign, he stopped this practice. Sejong had a scholar write an essay that said that Korean kings also had the Mandate of Heaven, which was normally exclusively claimed by China. In 1449, when Ming requested that Joseon send 100,000 Korean troops to the Liaodong area of Manchuria, Joseon declined.
The anti-Buddhist policies under Sejong put Joseon at odds with Ming; in dealings with China, the Joseon court attempted to allay concerns that it was suppressing Buddhism. Around that time, Buddhism enjoyed significant support among the Ming court and gentry. Korean Buddhist monks escaped to Ming: 30 during the reign of Taejong and 9 during the reign of Sejong. Sejong asked the Yongle Emperor, a devout Buddhist, if those monks could be repatriated. Fearing what would happen to the monks, the Yongle Emperor declined.
Hangul
Sejong was responsible for the development of Hangul, the native alphabet for the Korean language. It is debated to what extent Sejong was personally involved in its creation, although most scholars believe he was significantly involved. A minority of scholars believe that Sejong was the sole author. All contemporary documentary evidence suggests that he was, but many scholars argue Sejong would have been too busy to develop Hangul on his own.
Before the invention of Hangul, Korea had been using Hanja (Chinese characters), as well as related systems like Idu and Hyangchal, since antiquity. The difficulty of the systems limited their use to mostly upper-class people; commoners were largely illiterate. Also, the scripts are not well suited for representing the Korean language; the Chinese and Korean languages are not closely related and differ in significant ways. Korean pronunciation and ideas could only be indirectly represented.
Due to a lack of records on the topic, it is not known when work on Hangul first began. A number of scholars have argued that the creation of the 1434 Samganghaengsilto caused Sejong to become interested in universal literacy. Also, Sejong long had a personal interest in linguistics and languages. He took a personal interest in the activities of the Bureau of Interpreters, and himself took Chinese lessons from early on in his reign. A 1435 record claimed that Sejong practiced colloquial spoken Chinese every other day and took lessons from famed linguist . Hangul was possibly developed in secret, in anticipation of the backlash that it eventually received, although this is debated.
The script was revealed, likely mostly completed, to Sejong's court in the 12th month of 1443. In the 2nd month of 1444, a major faction in the Hall of Worthies led by Ch'oe Malli made a famous rebuke of the script. Ch'oe and several others argued that Hangul was anti-Confucian, as they felt it was too far a departure from Chinese civilization. Sejong rebutted that he felt the script was Confucian, as it was created out of a desire to benefit his subjects. Anti-Hangul sentiment was also partially motivated by elitism; literacy in Hanja was then seen as a status symbol, and promoting general literacy could be seen as harming the social positions of the elite. The script was initially dubbed ŏnmun (), which developed an elitist connotation of "vulgar writing". Sejong had Ch'oe and several others imprisoned for a single day.
At some point, Sejong recruited young men of the Hall of Worthies for a new office dedicated to Hangul that was dubbed (). It worked on developing official documentation for Hangul. It also worked on several major literary projects related to Hangul, including the 1447 rhyme dictionary Tongguk chŏngun and the first major piece of Hangul literature Yongbiŏch'ŏn'ga.
thumb|First page of the [[Hunminjeongeum|Hunminjeongeum Haerye, showing the intro by Sejong]]
In the 9th month of 1446, Hangul's documentation was completed and published in the texts Hunminjeongeum and its companion commentary text Hunminjeongeum Haerye. The Hunminjeongeum was penned by Sejong himself, while the Haerye was compiled by a group of scholars of the Ŏnmunch'ŏng led by Chŏng Inji. The Hunminjeongeum begins with this now-famous quote:Sejong attempted to lightly pressure his detractors and subjects into accepting the script, to limited success. Ledyard argues that Sejong intentionally did not aggressively force the script on others as to avoid more severe backlash. Ledyard evaluated this hypothesized strategy favorably and said it likely contributed to Hangul's eventual success. He attempted to integrate Hangul into bureaucratic examinations and the curricula of government schools like the Sŏnggyun'gwan, although such integrations were often removed after his death.
Despite Sejong's efforts, Hangul continued to be looked down upon until the end of the Joseon period, over 400 years later. It was only officially adopted by the government in 1894, during the Kabo Reform.
Later life and death
Sejong reported to having recurring and worsening health issues for much of his life; a number of these complaints were recorded in the Veritable Records. One of the earliest records of his complaints was made when he was 22 years old; he then claimed to have knee and back pain. In his 30s, he complained of back pain and began reporting problems with his vision, excess thirst, and excess urination. In his 40s, he complained of his vision problems with greater frequency. He had a reputation for enjoying the consumption of meat and having a sedentary lifestyle. Beginning in 1445, he was practicing Buddhist vegetarianism.
Scholars have attempted to infer what diseases he had based on historical evidence. The predominant hypotheses are that Sejong had either type 1 or type 2 diabetes. Medical researcher JiHwan Lee disputes that diagnosis and argues that Sejong's symptoms more closely resemble those of ankylosing spondylitis (a type of arthritis). Lee argues that either type of diabetes would have been lethal to him sooner, and that Sejong did not have a clear family history of diabetes.
Beginning in 1437, Sejong began asking his ministers if lesser governmental affairs could be delegated to the crown prince, as he was feeling unwell. Historian Martina Deuchler argued Sejong asked this because he intended to ease the crown prince into politics to make the succession smoother. His ministers dismissed his health concerns then and multiple times over for years onwards, including in 1438, 1439, and 1442. In 1439, he stopped attending the royal lectures due to his health issues. Finally, apparently frustrated with the lack of progress, Sejong issued an edict in 1443 in which he declared the crown prince would handle minor state affairs for the last half of each month, and that all ministers must proclaim their loyalty to him. This sparked furious protest from across the government. Some ministers balked at the idea of being presided over by the crown prince, and others expressed concerns that the division of royal authority could destabilize the state. After years of debate and compromise, in 1445, the crown prince began to handle the routine affairs of government. Historian Kim Jongmyung argues that Sejong then devoted himself wholeheartedly to working on Hangul.
thumb|[[Yeongneung: the tomb of Sejong]]
In his last years, Sejong spent much of his time in his study, writing poetry. Even while in deep pain, Sejong reportedly insisted on learning and attending lectures, and would even stay up past midnight to do so. In 1446, after the promulgation of Hangul, he said to his ministers that he was "suffering from various illnesses and just waiting in the palace for death". In the last months of his life, his pains grew more serious. On the 22nd day, 1st month of 1450, he moved into the residence of Grand Prince Hyoryŏng to receive treatment for his illnesses. He died on the 17th day, 2nd month of 1450 at the age of 52, in the residence of in Gyeongbokgung's East Palace. Sejong's creation of the Korean alphabet is celebrated every 9 October as Hangul Day, a national holiday.
Multiple places in South Korea, including Sejong Street, Sejong–Pocheon Expressway, and Sejong City, South Korea's de facto administrative capital, are named after him. Various institutes such as King Sejong Station, the King Sejong Institute, the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts, now sits on a concrete pedestal on the boulevard of Gwanghwamun Square and directly in front of the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts in Seoul. The pedestal contains one of the several entrances to the 3,200 m<sup>2</sup> underground museum exhibit entitled "The Story of King Sejong". The Sejong the Great-class destroyers are also named for him.
Since 1973, a portrait of Sejong has been on the South Korean 10,000-won bank note, along with various scientific tools invented under his reign. He was previously depicted on the 1000-hwan bill and 500-hwan bill until they were decommissioned in 1962.
In North Korea, Sejong is discussed much less than in the South and more pessimistically than elsewhere. According to South Korean researcher of North Korea Lee Kyu-Duk, one North Korean history book Chosŏn t'ongsa () claims that Hangul was invented in order to facilitate feudal exploitation of the peasantry. While the book evaluates Hangul's linguistic features positively, it downplays the contributions of Sejong in developing the script and instead attributes its development to the intellect of the masses. Lee argued the following quote from a North Korean history work was representative of North Korean writings on Sejong:), that died in childhood and was never included in the family genealogy book.
- Queen Sohŏn of the (1395–1446)
- (1412–1424)
- King Munjong (1414–1452), first son
- (1414 or 1415 – 1477)
- King Sejo (1417–1468), second son
- Grand Prince Anpyeong (1418–1453), third son
- Grand Prince Imyŏng (1420–1469), fourth son
- (1425–1444), fifth son
- (1426–1456), seventh son
- (1427–1445), ninth son
- (1434–1467), fifteenth son
- of the (1406–1464)
- Two daughters, both died young
- Prince Kyeyang (1427–1464), eighth son
- (1428–1460), tenth son
- (1430–1479), twelfth son
- (1431–1463), fourteenth son
- (1435–1477), seventeenth son
- (1439–1450), eighteenth son
- of the Cheongju Yang clan (?–1455)
- (1429–1459), eleventh son
- (1431–1455), thirteenth son
- (1431–1463), sixteenth son
- of the (?–1483)
- Prince Hwaŭi (1425–?), sixth son
- of the
- Royal Consort Cho ()
- (?–1452)
- (?–1461)
- (1396–1463)
- (1425)
- (?–1444)
- Daughter (1430–1431)
thumb|
The in Seongju County is a Historic Site of South Korea. It was built from 1438 to 1442. The plot contains nineteen (chambers that hold the placenta of newborn children). Eighteen of the chambers belong to Sejong's sons and a nineteenth belongs to Sejong's grandson, King Danjong.
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|1998–2000
|Ahn Jae-mo
|Tears of the Dragon
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|The King and the Queen
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|2007
|Kim Jun-sik
|'
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| rowspan="2" |2008
|Lee Hyun-woo
| rowspan="2" |The Great King, Sejong
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|Kim Sang-kyung
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| rowspan="4" |2011
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| rowspan="3" |Deep Rooted Tree
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|Song Joong-ki
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|Splash Splash Love
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| rowspan="2" |2016
|Nam Da-reum
|Six Flying Dragons
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|Jang Yeong-sil
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|Jang Dong-yoon
|Joseon Exorcist
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|Kim Min-gi
|The King of Tears, Lee Bang-won
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|2025
|Lee Jun-young
|The Queen Who Crowns
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{| class="wikitable"
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!Portrayed by
!Title
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|1962
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|1964
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|1978
|Shin Seong-il
|'
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|2008
|Ahn Sung-ki
|The Divine Weapon
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|2012
|Ju Ji-hoon
|I Am the King
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| rowspan="2" |2019
|Song Kang-ho
|The King's Letters
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|Han Suk-kyu
|Forbidden Dream
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|2023
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Video games
- Sejong is the leader of the Korean civilization in the 2022 Leader Pass DLC of Civilization VI, Sid Meier's Civilization V, and Civilization Revolution 2.
See also
- UNESCO King Sejong Literacy Prize