Saudi Arabia - WikiHQ

Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the largest in the Middle East, and the twelfth-largest in the world. It is bordered by the Red Sea to the west; Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north; the Persian Gulf, Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to the east; Oman to the southeast; and Yemen to the south. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia from Egypt and Israel. Saudi Arabia is the only country with a coastline along both the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland, steppe, and mountains. The capital and largest city is Riyadh; other major cities include Jeddah and the two holiest cities in Islam, Mecca and Medina. With a population of almost 32.2 million, Saudi Arabia is the fourth most populous country in the Arab world.

Pre-Islamic Arabia, the territory that constitutes modern-day Saudi Arabia, was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations; the archaeological study of the prehistory of Saudi Arabia has identified some of the earliest traces of human activity outside Africa. Islam emerged in what is now Saudi Arabia in the early seventh century. Islamic prophet Muhammad united the population of the Arabian Peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territories in North Africa, Central, South Asia and Iberia within decades. In its Basic Law, Saudi Arabia defines itself as a sovereign Arab Islamic state with Islam as its official religion and Arabic as its official language. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam was the prevailing political and cultural force until the 2000s. The Saudi government has attracted criticism for various policies such as its intervention in the Yemeni Civil War, restrictions on political and civil liberties, and poor human rights record. Since the mid-2010s, Saudi Arabia has instituted limited and gradual reforms to liberalize social, cultural, and religious life.

Saudi Arabia is considered both a regional and middle power, in addition to being a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Since petroleum was discovered in the country in 1938, the kingdom has become the world's second-largest oil producer and leading oil exporter, controlling the world's second-largest oil reserves and sixth-largest gas reserves. Saudi Arabia is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy and is the only Arab country among the G20 major economies. The Saudi economy is the largest in the Middle East and the world's nineteenth-largest by nominal GDP and seventeenth-largest by PPP. Ranking very high in the Human Development Index, Saudi Arabia offers free university tuition, no personal income tax, and free universal health care. With its dependence on foreign labour, Saudi Arabia has the world's third-largest immigrant population, with foreign-born residents comprising roughly 40% of the population. Saudi Arabians are among the world's youngest people, with approximately half being under 25 years old. Saudi Arabia is a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council, United Nations, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Arab League, and OPEC, as well as a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.

Etymology

Following the amalgamation of the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd, Abdulaziz issued a royal decree on 23 September 1932 naming the new state al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya (Arabic ), which is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English, but literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom", or "the Saudi Kingdom of Arabia" (compare the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan).

The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Suʿūdīyya in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a nisba, formed from the dynastic name of the Saudi royal family, the Al Saud (). Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the personal possession of the royal family. Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning "family of" or "House of", to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of Al Saud, this is Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin, the father of the dynasty's 18th-century founder, Muhammad bin Saud.

History

Prehistory

thumb|upright|Anthropomorphic stela (4th millennium BC), sandstone, 57x27 cm, from El-Maakir-Qaryat al-Kaafa ([[National Museum of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh)]]

There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago. A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left Africa about 75,000 years ago across the Bab-el-Mandeb connecting the Horn of Africa and Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of humanity. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in the Quaternary that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia's rich Lower Paleolithic record, marked by numerous Oldowan-like sites, indicates a significant role in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia.

In the Neolithic period, prominent cultures such as Al-Magar, whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered a "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills. The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse. Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that the statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of the inhabitants.

In 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling the Canaan Dog) were discovered in northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than 8,000 years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world.

At the end of the 4th millennium BC, Arabia entered the Bronze Age; metals were widely used, and the period was characterized by its 2 m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours.

In May 2021, archaeologists announced that a 350,000-year-old Acheulean site named An Nasim in the Hail region could be the oldest human habitation site in northern Saudi Arabia. Paleolithic artefacts are similar to material remains uncovered at the Acheulean sites in the Nefud Desert.

Pre-Islamic

thumb|upright|The "Worshipping Servant" statue (2500 BC), above in height, is much taller than any possible Mesopotamian or Harappan models. Photo courtesy of the [[National Museum of Korea.]]

The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates back to the Ubaid period at Dosariyah. Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from the succeeding millennium. The settlement of the region picks up again in the period of Dilmun in the early 3rd millennium. Known records from Uruk refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the Eastern Province, notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely that Tarout Island was the main port and the capital of Dilmun. The capital of Midian was Qurayyah, it consists of a large, fortified citadel encompassing 35 hectares and below it lies a walled settlement of 15 hectares. The city hosted as many as 12,000 inhabitants. The Bible recounts Israel's two wars with Midian, in the early 11th century BC. Politically, the Midianites were described as having a decentralized structure headed by five kings (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Hur, and Reba); the names appear to be toponyms of important Midianite settlements. It is common to view that Midian designated a confederation of tribes, the sedentary element settled in the Hijaz while its nomadic affiliates pastured and sometimes pillaged as far away as Palestine. The nomadic Midianites were one of the earliest exploiters of the domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region.]]

At the end of the 7th century BC, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom of Lihyan. During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain. The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain from Yathrib in the south and parts of the Levant in the north. In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired.

The Lihyanites fell into the hands of the Nabataeans around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to Tayma, and to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain was annexed by the Roman Empire, which renamed it Arabia Petraea, and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630.

Middle Ages and rise of Islam

thumb|left|At its greatest extent, the [[Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) covered and 62 million people (29 per cent of the world's population), making it one of the largest empires in history in both area and proportion of the world's population. It was also larger than any previous empire in history.]]

Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies. Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 CE. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west, to parts of Central and South Asia in the east, in a matter of decades. Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the newly conquered lands.

thumb|upright|The [[Battle of Badr, 13 March 624 CE]]

For much of the 10th century, the Isma'ili-Shi'ite Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the Black Stone. In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni defeated the Qarmatians in Bahrain and al-Hasa with the help of the Seljuq Empire and founded the Uyunid dynasty. The Uyunid Emirate later underwent expansion, with its territory stretching from Najd to the Syrian Desert. They were overthrown by the Usfurids in 1253. Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of Hormuz captured Bahrain and Qatif in 1320. The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia Jarwanid dynasty came to rule eastern Arabia in the 14th century. The Jabrids took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay tribute in 1507. Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty.

Ottoman Hejaz and Portuguese era

In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Aseer and Al-Ahsa) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean. The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the empire's central authority. These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the dispute with Transjordan over the inclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an, including the cities of Ma'an and Aqaba.

Saud dynasty and unification

thumb|Expansion of the [[Emirate of Diriyah|first Saudi State in 1810|left]]

The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town of Diriyah in central Arabia with the accession as emir of Muhammad bin Saud on 22 February 1727. In 1744 he joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam. This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.

The Emirate of Diriyah established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, sacking Karbala in 1802, and capturing Mecca in 1803. In 1818, it was destroyed by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha. The much smaller Emirate of Nejd was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid, who ruled the Emirate of Jabal Shammar. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait. with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz. In 1902, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdulaziz—later known as Ibn Saud—recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd, creating the third "Saudi state". With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913.

In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state. Although the revolt failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali became King of Hejaz.

Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title Sultan of Nejd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz. For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units. On Ibn Saud's behalf, Prince Faisal declared the unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

20th century

thumb|The oil well [[Dammam No. 7 on March 4, 1938, the day it struck oil in commercial quantities, becoming the first in Saudi Arabia to do so]]

The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues. In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company). Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an oil boycott against the Western countries that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices.alt=Nasser and Faisal|thumb|Faisal (left) with Egypt's President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser in Cairo, 1969]]

By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world. Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country; and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country's Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the 1979 Qatif Uprising. The second event was the Grand Mosque Seizure in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government. Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.

thumb|left|Map of Saudi Arabian administrative regions and roadways

In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco. King Khalid died in 1982 and was succeeded by his brother, King Fahd. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment. however, Saudi Arabia condemned the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked the United States to intervene. Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies.

Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "Basic Law", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]."

21st century

Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar. In February–April 2005, the first-ever nationwide municipal elections were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part.

thumb|[[President of Egypt|Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi with King Salman, U.S. President Donald Trump and First Lady Melania participating in the inaugural opening of the Global Center to Combat Extremism, Sunday, May 21, 2017]]

Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own Arab Spring protests. In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $36 billion, of which $10.7 billion was earmarked for housing. No political reforms were included, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned. Abdullah also announced a package of $93 billion, which included 500,000 new homes to a cost of $67 billion, in addition to creating new security jobs. Although male-only municipal elections were held in 2011, Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in the 2015 municipal elections, and also to be nominated to the Shura Council.

Geography

upright=1.3|thumb|left|Saudi Arabia topography

thumb|left|[[Harrat Khaybar seen from the International Space Station. Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2000 dormant volcanoes. Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some .]]

Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula (the world's largest peninsula), lying between latitudes 16° and 33° N, and longitudes 34° and 56° E. Because the country's southeastern and southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country is undefined.

Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert, associated semi-desert, shrubland, steppes, several mountain ranges, volcanic lava fields and highlands. The Rub' al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in the southeastern part of the country is the world's largest contiguous sand desert. Though there are lakes in the country, Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world by area with no permanent rivers. Wadis, non-permanent rivers, however, are very numerous throughout the kingdom. The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.

The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the Nejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah, parallel to which runs along an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of Aseer is mountainous and contains the Jabal Soudah, which is the highest point in the country. The lowest recorded temperature, −12.0 °C (10.4 °F), was measured in Turaif. Of the Gulf states, Saudi Arabia is likely to experience snowfalls most frequently.

In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around . Annual rainfall is very low. The southern regions differ in that they are influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60% of the annual precipitation.

Biodiversity

Saudi Arabia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert, Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna, Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands, Arabian Desert, and Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert. Wildlife includes the Arabian leopard, Arabian wolf, striped hyena, mongoose, baboon, Cape hare, sand cat, and jerboa. Animals such as gazelles, oryx, leopards and cheetahs were relatively numerous until the 19th century, when extensive hunting reduced these animals almost to extinction. The culturally important Asiatic lion occurred in Saudi Arabia until the late 19th century before it was hunted to extinction in the wild. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sandgrouse, and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous. Domesticated animals include the legendary Arabian horse, Arabian camel, sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, chickens, etc.

The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem with more than 1,200 species of fish around 10% of which are endemic. This also includes 42 species of deep water fish. however, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran, while the Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution. No political parties or national elections are permitted. others regard it as lacking aspects of totalitarianism but nevertheless classify it as an authoritarian regime. The Economist ranked the Saudi government 150th out of 167 in its 2022 Democracy Index, and Freedom House gave it its lowest "Not Free" rating, giving it a score of 8 out of 100 for 2023. In the V-Dem Democracy Indices, Saudi Arabia ranks amongst the lowest as a "closed autocracy," ranking at 179th and 167th out of 179 countries in electoral democracy and liberal democracy indices respectively. Additionally, according to International IDEA's Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Saudi Arabia performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political representation, including credible elections, inclusive suffrage and effective parliament.

In the absence of national elections and political parties, Participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs, and business elite on major decisions.

alt=Sadat and Khalid|thumb|[[Khalid of Saudi Arabia|King Khalid (right) meeting Egypt's president Anwar Sadat with crown prince Fahd in the background at Cairo Airport in 1975]]

By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis. In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong, and outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation. Tribal sheikhs continue to exert a considerable degree of influence over local and national events. In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession. however, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic.

The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the Shi'ite minority—particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal/regionalist opponents (for example in the Hejaz). Of these, the minority activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years been involved in violent incidents in the country.

Monarchy and royal family

thumb|King [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|Fahd with US President Ronald Reagan and future US President Donald Trump in 1985. The US and Saudi Arabia supplied money and arms to the anti-Soviet mujahideen fighters in Afghanistan.]]

The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions, with royal decrees forming the basis of the country's legislation. The prime minister presides over the Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia and Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia. The king has usually been also the prime minister, with two exceptions: Crown Prince Faisal, who was prime minister during the reign of King Saud, and Crown Prince Mohammed Bin Salman, the current prime minister since 2022. The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allows it to control most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement at all levels of government. The number of princes is estimated to be at least , with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of Ibn Saud. The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family, and the royal family have often been accused of corruption over many years, and this continues into the 21st century. In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them, and endemic, and its existence was acknowledged and defended by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family) in an interview in 2001.

In its Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010, Transparency International gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean"). Saudi Arabia has undergone a process of political and social reform, such as to increase public transparency and good governance, but nepotism and patronage are widespread when doing business in the country; the enforcement of the anti-corruption laws is selective and public officials engage in corruption with impunity. As many as 500 people, including prominent Saudi Arabian princes, government ministers, and businesspeople, were arrested in an anti-corruption campaign in November 2017.

Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema

thumb|[[Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh with Bogdan Borusewicz in the Polish Senate, 26 May 2014]]

Saudi Arabia is unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government. The preferred ulema are of the Salafi movement. The ulema have been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990. In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems as well as a monopoly of authority over socio-religious affairs.

By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were underway, and the power of the ulema was in decline. However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals. The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support:

The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh, the country's leading religious family. The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family) with whom they formed a "mutual support pact" and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago. thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule. Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades, they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage. making predictability of legal interpretation difficult. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence (fiqh) found in pre-modern texts and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qur'an and hadith. In 2021, Saudi Arabia announced judicial reforms to entirely codify its laws and eliminate discrepancies.

Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to as regulations rather than laws because they are subordinate to Sharia. Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees. Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the king, and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.

Retaliatory punishments, or Qisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye. Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya (blood money), by the perpetrator.

Administrative divisions

Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 regions (; manatiq idāriyya, sing. منطقة إدارية; mintaqah idariyya). The regions are further divided into 118 governorates (; muhafazat, sing. محافظة; muhafazah). This number includes the 13 regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities (; amanah) headed by mayors (; amin). The governorates are further subdivided into sub-governorates (; marakiz, sing. مركز; markaz).

Foreign relations

The foreign policy of Saudi Arabia is officially focused on cooperation with the oil-exporting Gulf States, the unity of the Arab world, Islamic solidarity, and support for the United Nations and multilateralism. It joined the UN in 1945 and is a founding member of the Arab League, Gulf Cooperation Council, Muslim World League, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation. Saudi Arabia joined the World Trade Organization in 2005 and plays a prominent role in the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the G20.

Since co-founding OPEC in 1960, Saudi Arabia's oil pricing policy has officially aimed to stabilize the world oil market and moderate sharp price movements so as not to jeopardize Western economies. In 1973, Saudi Arabia and other Arab nations imposed an oil embargo against the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, and other Western nations that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War. The embargo caused an oil crisis with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.

Saudi Arabia and the United States are strategic allies; the U.S. has been the most influential foreign power in the kingdom since the end of World War II. Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Gulf War, particularly the stationing of American troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally. As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S.; for example, it refused to support or participate in the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003. In 2017, American President Donald Trump and King Salman signed a series of letters of intent for Saudi Arabia to purchase arms from the United States totalling $350 billion over 10 years.

China and Saudi Arabia's relationship has grown significantly in recent decades. A significant number of Saudi Arabians have also expressed a positive view of China. In February 2019, Crown Prince Mohammad defended China's Xinjiang internment camps for Uyghur Muslims. In July 2019, 22 mostly Western nations signed a letter addressed to the president of the UN Human Rights Council criticizing China's treatment of the Uyghur Muslims. 37 other countries, including Saudi Arabia and many other Muslim-majority states, responded by submitting a letter defending China's policies. According to The Diplomat, Saudi Arabia's human rights record has "come under frequent attack abroad and so defending China becomes a roundabout way of defending themselves".

Saudi Arabia has traditionally sought to preserve the regional status quo by using its financial, diplomatic, and military resources to limit the effects of revolutionary uprisings in neighbouring countries. It has engaged in a proxy conflict with Iran since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, which had called for the overthrow of monarchies and Sunni dominance. The rivalry between Iran and Saudi Arabia can be seen as the geopolitical extension of the wider Sunni-Shia conflict, with both sides being the flagship state for their respective sides. The consequences of the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the Arab Spring (2010–2012) led to increasing alarm within the Saudi monarchy over the rise of Iran's influence in the region. These fears were reflected in comments of King Abdullah, However, tensions between the rivals have cooled in recent years due to diplomatic dialogue. Despite being allies with The UAE on several organizations, they have been locked in a proxy war over the Yemeni civil war (2014–present) in which the Emiratis have supported secessionists against the pro-Saudi central government.

thumb|Major [[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict locations

Iran shown in green, KSA shown in orange]]

Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the Arab–Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the Palestinians and condemning Hezbollah.

In 2017, as part of its nuclear power programme, Saudi Arabia planned to extract uranium domestically, taking a step towards self-sufficiency in producing nuclear fuel. Subsequently, the kingdom has been exploring foreign partnerships for constructing its first civil nuclear reactors, including with the United States, China, Russia, South Korea, and France.

Saudi Arabia has sought to build greater relations with other Asian countries as well, particularly India, Pakistan, South Korea, Indonesia and Bangladesh. Saudi Arabia sees South Korea as a key business partner in multiple core sectors and has signed a mutual defence agreement with Pakistan. Despite having close relations with Pakistan for decades, India has emerged as another key economic partner with Saudi Arabia. According to former Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki in March 2014, Saudi Arabia along with Qatar provided political, financial, and media support to terrorists against the Iraqi government. Similarly, former President of Syria Bashar al-Assad noted in 2015 that the sources of the extreme ideology of the terrorist organization ISIS and other such Salafist extremist groups are the Wahabism that has been supported by the royal family of Saudi Arabia.

Relations with the U.S. became strained following 9/11 terror attacks. American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a jihadist culture. According to former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in December 2010, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide." The Saudi government denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural extremism. In September 2016, the U.S. Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act that would allow relatives of victims of the 11 September attacks to sue Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks. In 2014, Sheikh Abdulaziz bin Abdullah Al-Sheikh, the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia and Chairman of the Council of Senior Scholars, issued a fatwa explicitly prohibiting joining or supporting terrorist organizations such as ISIS and al-Qaeda. According to the U.S. Department of State, "Saudi Arabia plays an important role in working toward a peaceful and prosperous future for the region and is a strong partner in security and counterterrorism efforts and in military, diplomatic, and financial cooperation." A significant Saudi counterterrorism success was the foiling of a 2010 cargo plane bomb plot. In December 2015, Saudi Arabia announced the formation of the Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition, an alliance of Muslim-majority countries aimed at combating terrorism and extremism.

Since 2016 the kingdom has started to back off from exporting Islamic fundamentalism. Several reforms took place including curbing the powers of religious police, and no longer funding the construction of mosques abroad.

Military

The Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia are under the Ministry of Defence and consist of the Royal Saudi Land Forces (including the Royal Guard), the Air Force, the Navy, the Air Defence, and the Strategic Missile Force; the Saudi Arabian National Guard, which is under the Ministry of National Guard, is made up of tribal forces loyal to the Saudi royal family and plays a role in both domestic security and foreign defence. Additionally, the kingdom has several paramilitary forces under the Minister of Interior, including the Saudi Arabian Border Guard, Facilities Security Force, and Coast Guard. A 2023 estimate by SIPRI ranked Saudi Arabia fourth in the world in per capita military spending. The kingdom was the world's second largest arms importer from 2019 to 2023. According to the BICC, Saudi Arabia is the 28th most militarized country in the world and possesses the second-best military equipment qualitatively in the region, after Israel. Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most densely armed nations.

Saudi Arabia has security relationships with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, which provide training and weapons; the kingdom is the largest recipient of U.S. arms in the world, accounting for 12 percent of all U.S. arms exports in 2024. Saudi Arabia has a long-standing military relationship with Pakistan and is speculated to have secretly funded the latter's atomic bomb programme with the intention of purchasing its atomic weapons; in September 2025, both countries entered into a mutual defence pact. Since 2018, Saudi Arabia has repeatedly expressed willingness to acquire or develop nuclear weapons in the event that its chief regional rival, Iran, develops one.

In March 2015, Saudi Arabia mobilized 150,000 troops and 100 fighter jets to support its intervention in the civil war in neighbouring Yemen. By early 2016, Saudi ground forces and their coalition allies captured Aden and parts of southwest Yemen, though the Houthis continued to control northern Yemen and the capital city Sanaa. From there the Houthis launched successful attacks across the border into Saudi Arabia. The Saudi military has also carried out an aerial bombing campaign and a naval blockade aimed at stopping weapons shipments to the Houthis. As of 2024, Saudi Arabia had 2,500 troops actively participating in the conflict in Yemen.

Human rights

The Saudi government, which mandates Muslim and non-Muslim observance of Sharia law under the absolute rule of the House of Saud, has been denounced by international organizations and governments for violating human rights. The authoritarian regime is consistently ranked among the "worst of the worst" in Freedom House's annual survey of political and civil rights. According to Amnesty International, security forces torture and ill-treat detainees to extract confessions to be used as evidence against them. Saudi Arabia abstained from the UN vote adopting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, saying it contradicted Sharia. Mass executions, such as those carried out in 2016, 2019, and 2022,

thumb|right|[[Deera Square, central Riyadh. It is a former site of public beheadings.]]

Saudi Arabian law does not recognize sexual orientations or religious freedom, and the public practice of non-Muslim religions is actively prohibited. The justice system regularly engages in capital punishment, which has included public executions by decapitation. In line with Sharia in the Saudi justice system, the death penalty can theoretically be imposed for a range of offences, including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, apostasy, adultery, and witchcraft. It can be carried out by beheading with a sword, In April 2020, Saudi Supreme Court issued a directive to eliminate the punishment of flogging from the court system, being replaced by imprisonment or fines.

Historically, Saudi women have faced discrimination in many aspects of their lives and were effectively treated as legal minors under the male guardianship system. The treatment of women has been referred to as "sex segregation" and "gender apartheid". Since the 2000s, the kingdom has made several attempts to improve the status of women in order to elevate their global standing. As of June 2023, the kingdom has reportedly reversed its ban on women "becoming lawyers, engineers, or geologists" and established "aggressive affirmative action programmes", doubling the female labour force participation rate. It has added "its first female newspaper editors, diplomats, TV anchors and public prosecutors", with a female head of the Saudi stock exchange and member on the board of Saudi Aramco. In June 2018, the Saudi government issued a law allowing women to drive. However, an investigation by The Guardian newspaper in 2025 found that the Dar al-Reaya, officially "care homes", continued to be effectively "jails" for women whose families wished to institutionalize them for disobedience, extramarital sexual relations or being absent from home. Some women are sent to Dar al-Reaya to protect a family's reputation after a woman is sexually abused by a brother or father. Treatment was reported to be "hellish": with solitary confinement, flogging, and no family contact.

Saudi Arabia is a notable destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes of slave labour and sexual exploitation. Migrants from Asia and Africa are employed in the country's construction, hospitality, and domestic work sectors under the kafala system, which human rights groups say is linked to slavery.

In 2025, Saudi Arabia broke its record for annual executions for the second consecutive year. Many human rights groups condemned the kingdom, calling it the "bloodiest year of executions in the kingdom since monitoring began".

Economy

right|thumb|[[King Abdullah Financial District is one of the largest investment centres in the Middle East, located in Riyadh.]]

With gross domestic product (GDP) at over $1.1 trillion nominally, and more than $2.3 trillion by purchasing power parity (PPP), Saudi Arabia has the second largest economy in the Middle East (after Turkey), the largest in the Arab world, and the 18th largest in the world. It has the world's second-largest proven reserves of petroleum, of which it is third largest producer and the largest exporter; the country also has the sixth-largest proven natural gas reserves. having the third highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$34.4 trillion in 2016.

Saudi Arabia has a command economy based largely on petroleum; the oil industry accounts for roughly 63% of budget revenue, 67% of export earnings, and 45% of nominal GDP compared with 40% from the private sector. It is strongly dependent on foreign workers, with about 80% of private sector employees being non-Saudi. Challenges to the economy include halting or reversing the decline in per-capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with employment, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing construction, and diminishing corruption and inequality. Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak oil).

thumb|Map of [[Petroleum|oil and gas pipelines in the Middle-East|left]]

From 2003 to 2013, "several key services" were privatized—municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications—and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities." In November 2005, Saudi Arabia was approved as a member of the World Trade Organization. Negotiations to join had focused on the degree to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and in 2000, the government established the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the kingdom. Saudi Arabia maintains a list of sectors in which foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and power transmission/distribution over time. The government has also made an attempt at "Saudizing" the economy, replacing foreign workers with Saudi nationals with limited success.

upright=1|thumb|The [[hajj is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, the holiest city for Muslims. ]]

In addition to petroleum and gas, Saudi has a significant gold mining sector in the Mahd adh Dhahab region and significant other mineral industries, an agricultural sector (especially in the southwest) based on vegetables, fruits, dates etc. and livestock, and large number of temporary jobs created by the roughly two million annual hajj pilgrims. Saudi Arabia has had five-year "Development Plans" since 1970. Among its plans were to launch "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City) to diversify the economy and provide jobs.

Saudi Arabia is increasingly activating its ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China in addition to oil transport. To this end, ports such as Jeddah Islamic Port or King Abdullah Economic City are being rapidly expanded, and investments are being made in logistics. The country is historically and currently part of the Maritime Silk Road.

Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue any. The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three reporters and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube. Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis may be considered poor. Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous because of the risk of being arrested.

The unexpected impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the economy, along with Saudi Arabia's poor human rights records, laid unforeseen challenges before the development plans of the kingdom, where some of the programmes under 'Vision 2030' were also expected to be affected. In May 2020, the Finance Minister of Saudi Arabia admitted that the country's economy was facing a severe economical crisis for the first time in decades, because of the pandemic as well as declining global oil markets.

In July 2024 Saudi Arabia's Renewable Energy Localisation Company (RELC) has formed three joint ventures with Chinese companies to advance the kingdom's clean energy infrastructure. As part of Saudi Arabia's 2030 targets, the Public Investment Fund is actively promoting the localization of renewable energy components. RELC, a division of the sovereign fund, facilitates partnerships between global manufacturers and Saudi private sector firms to strengthen local supply chains. These initiatives aim to localize up to 75% of the components used in Saudi Arabia's renewable projects by 2030, positioning the country as a major global exporter of renewable technologies.

Agriculture

thumb|left|[[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Hasa is known for its palm trees and dates. Al-Hasa has over 30 million palm trees which produce over 100 thousand tons of dates every year.]]

Saudi Arabia's predominantly arid environment, poor soil, and traditional nomadic lifestyle have long favoured pastoralism, particularly of camels, sheep, and goats; agricultural production has historically been localized and oriented towards basic subsistence. Less than two percent of the total land area is used for crops, with agriculture constituting only a fraction of GDP (2.5 percent) and employing a similar proportion of the workforce. Serious large-scale agricultural development began in the 1970s, particularly with wheat, with the government launching an extensive programme to promote modern farming technology; establish rural roads, irrigation networks and storage and export facilities; and encourage agricultural research and training institutions. The kingdom has continued prioritizing domestic food production through subsidies and generous incentives.—and the number is expected to increase to 20 million trees. Saudi farmers also grow substantial amounts of other grains such as barley, sorghum, and millet.

Saudi Arabia has some of the most modern and largest dairy farms in the Middle East; milk production boasts a productive annual rate of per cow, one of the highest in the world. Saudi dairy company Almarai is the largest vertically integrated dairy company in the Middle East, and the largest dairy firm in the world by volume; it operates the world's largest dairy farm at Al Safi.

Following an end to domestic wheat production in 2016 to preserve water, Saudi Arabia encouraged small famers to produce wheat in 2019 through a domestic production programme established under the Saudi Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture (MEWA). In 2025, wheat production is forecast to more than double the five-year average.

Consuming nonrenewable groundwater resulted in the loss of an estimated four-fifths of the total groundwater reserves by 2012. About half the arable land is cultivated through rain-fed dry farming (mostly in Asir), two-fifths through the planting of local tree crops (namely dates and olives), and the remainder by irrigation, mostly by underground water.

As part of the Saudi Green Initiative, which seeks to restore vegetation cover and ecological sustainability, the kingdom aims to plant 100 million mangroves; as of 2024, the National Centre for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification announced it had planted 13 million seedlings.

Water supply and sanitation

thumb|[[Al-Musk Lake close to Jeddah]]

One of the main challenges for Saudi Arabia is water scarcity. Substantial investments have been undertaken in seawater desalination, water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment. Today about 50% of drinking water comes from desalination, 40% from the mining of non-renewable groundwater, and 10% from surface water in the mountainous southwest of the country. Saudi Arabia is suffering from a major depletion of the water in its underground aquifers and a resultant break down and disintegration of its agriculture as a consequence. As a result of the catastrophe, Saudi Arabia has bought agricultural land in the United States, Argentina, and Africa. Saudi Arabia ranked as a major buyer of agricultural land in foreign countries.

thumb|Saudi Arabia was the third most water stressed country in the world in 2022.

According to the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation of the WHO and UNICEF, the latest reliable source on access to water and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is the 2004 census. It indicates that 97% of the population had access to an improved source of drinking water and 99% had access to improved sanitation. For 2015, the JMP estimates that access to sanitation increased to 100%. Sanitation was primarily through on-site solutions, and about 40% of the population was connected to sewers. In 2015, 886,000 people lacked access to "improved" water.

Tourism

thumb|[[Rijal Almaa Heritage Village in Aseer]]

In 2019, Saudi Arabia adopted a general tourism travel visa to allow non-Muslims to visit. Although most tourism largely involves religious pilgrimages, there is growth in the leisure tourism sector. According to the World Bank, approximately 14.3 million people visited Saudi Arabia in 2012, making it the world's 19th-most-visited country. Tourism is an important component of the Saudi Vision 2030, and according to a report conducted by BMI Research in 2018 both religious and non-religious tourism have significant potential for expansion.

The kingdom offers an electronic visa for foreign visitors to attend sports events and concerts. In 2019, the kingdom announced its plans to open visa applications for visitors, where people from about 50 countries would be able to get tourist visas to Saudi. In 2020 it was announced that holders of a US, UK or Schengen visa are eligible for a Saudi electronic visa upon arrival.

Demographics

thumb|Saudi Arabia population density (people per km<sup>2</sup>)

Saudi Arabia's reported population is 32,175,224 as of 2022, making it the fourth most populous country in the Arab world. Close to 42% of its inhabitants are immigrants, mostly from the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa.

The Saudi population has grown rapidly since 1950, when it was estimated at 3 million. For much of the 20th century, the country had one of the highest population growth rates in the world, at around 3% annually; it continues to grow at a rate of 1.62% per year,

Ethnically, 90% of citizens are Arab with 10% holding Afro-Arab ancestry. Most Saudis are concentrated in the southwest; Hejaz, which is the most populated region, is home to one-third of the population, followed by neighbouring Najd (28%) and the Eastern Province (15%). As late as 1970, most Saudis lived a subsistence life in the rural provinces, but in the last half of the 20th century, the kingdom has urbanized rapidly: as of 2023, about 85% of Saudis live in urban metropolitan areas—specifically Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam. As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at . Slavery was officially abolished in 1962.