The sambar (Rusa unicolor) is a large deer native to the Indian subcontinent, South China and Southeast Asia. It has been listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List since 2008, as populations have declined substantially due to hunting, local insurgency, and industrial exploitation of habitat. This is supported by reports that sambar can still interbreed to produce fertile hybrids with this species.
Subspecies
Seven sambar subspecies are recognised:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! style="background:#f0f0f0;" |Subspecies
! style="background:#f0f0f0;" |Common name
! style="background:#f0f0f0;" |Geographic range
|-
| style="width:25%" |R. u. unicolor<br />150 px
| style="width:25%" |Indian or Sri Lankan sambar
| style="width:30%" |India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, vagrant in Pakistan
|-
| style="width:25%" |R. u. brookei
| style="width:25%" |Bornean sambar
| style="width:30%" |Borneo
|-
| style="width:25%" |R. u. cambojensis<br />150 px
| style="width:25%" |Mainland Southeast Asian sambar
| style="width:30%" |Mainland Southeast Asia
|-
| style="width:25%" |R. u. dejeani
| style="width:25%" |South China sambar
| style="width:30%" |Southern and southwestern China
|-
| style="width:25%" |R. u. equina<br />150 px
| style="width:25%" |Malayan sambar
| style="width:30%" |Sumatra
|-
| style="width:25%" |R. u. hainana
| style="width:25%" |Hainan sambar
| style="width:30%" |China (Hainan)
|-
| style="width:25%" |R. u. swinhoei<br />150 px
| style="width:25%" |Formosan sambar deer
| style="width:30%" |Taiwan
|-
| style="width:25%" |↑R. u. boninensis
| style="width:25%" |Bonin sambar
| style="width:30%" |Extinct; Japan (Bonin Islands)
|}
Description
The appearance and the size of the sambar vary widely across its range, which has led to considerable taxonomic confusion in the past; over 40 different scientific synonyms have been used for the species. In general, they attain a height of at the shoulder and may weigh as much as , though more typically . Head and body length varies from , with a tail. Individuals belonging to western subspecies tend to be larger than those from the east, and females are smaller than males. Among all living cervid species, only the moose and the elk can attain larger sizes.
thumb|The skeleton displayed at the [[Museum of Veterinary Anatomy FMVZ USP in São Paulo, Brazil]]
The large, rugged antlers are typically rusine, the brow tines being simple and the beams forked at the tip, so they have only three tines. The antlers are typically up to long in fully adult individuals. As with most deer, only the males have antlers.
It is also native to Singapore, but was thought to have been extirpated following World War II due to hunting and deforestation; it was rediscovered in the 1970s near Mandai. Despite the city-state's high level of urbanisation, the sambar population has rebounded and reached about 120 individuals in 2026, an eight-fold increase over the preceding five years.
Individuals sometimes cross the border from India into Pakistan.
Ecology and behaviour
Sambar are nocturnal or crepuscular. The males live alone for much of the year, and the females live in small herds of up to 16 individuals. Indeed, in some areas, the average herd consists of only three or four individuals, typically consisting of an adult female, her most recent young, and perhaps a subordinate, immature female. This is an unusual pattern for deer, which more commonly live in larger groups. They often congregate near water, and are good swimmers. They also consume a great variety of shrubs and trees.
thumb|Sambar stags in [[Ranthambore National Park, India]]
thumb|A sambar hind with a young stag
Stags wallow and dig their antlers in urine-soaked soil, and then rub against tree trunks. A stag also marks himself by spraying urine on his own face with a highly mobile penis. Anecdotally, the tiger is said to even mimic the call of the sambar to deceive it while hunting. They also can be taken by crocodiles, mostly the sympatric mugger crocodiles and saltwater crocodiles. Leopards and dholes largely prey on only young or sickly deer, though they can attack healthy adults as well. Sambar have lived up to 28 years in captivity, although they rarely survive more than 12 years in the wild.
Australia
In Australia, hunting sambar is a popular sport. Australian hunting fraternities prize large sambar trophies.
Sambar were introduced into Victoria at Mount Sugarloaf in the 1860s, in what is now Kinglake National Park, and at Harewood Estate near Tooradin. They quickly adapted to the Koo-Wee-Rup Swamp and thereafter spread into the high country, where in 2017, numbers were estimated at between 750,000 and one million animals. Later releases were at Ercildoune Estate near Ballarat, Wilsons Promontory, and French Island in Western Port. Another release occurred on the Cobourg Peninsula in the Northern Territory.
In Victoria, sambar are listed as a threat to biodiversity under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 because they reduce the number of native plant species.
Adult male sambar can significantly damage plants, removing most branches on some shrubs and sometimes girdling trees by thrashing their antlers on shrubs and sapling trees. They also feed on seedlings, fruit, or seeds of many plants. They leave scrape marks to advertise their territory.
Considerable debate exists about how they should be managed. Conservation groups believe their environmental effect outweighs their social value. Hunting organisations disagree and want to preserve sambar populations for future generations. Sambar are protected wildlife game species in Victoria and New South Wales, and a game licence is required to hunt them. In Victoria, recent provisions have been made for landowners to control problem deer without having to obtain a Game Licence or Authority to Control Wildlife permit.
In 2008–2009, hunters removed 35,000 sambar from public land in Victoria, many from national parks. This is a small fraction of the 40% of individuals in a sambar population that need to be removed to stop population growth.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, sambar roam the coast and gullies in Horowhenua District, Manawatū District, Rangitikei, and Whanganui. Until recently, they were protected, but the Department of Conservation has now removed hunting regulations surrounding them, allowing them now to be hunted year round.
United States
Sambar were introduced onto St. Vincent Island, Florida, in 1908 and increased to about 50 individuals by the 1950s. White-tailed deer also live on St. Vincent Island; however, they inhabit the highlands while the sambar mostly live in the lowlands and marshes. To ensure that the sambar population does not disrupt the native white-tails, hunting permits have been issued since 1987 to regulate the population. Each year, about 130 permits are offered for the three-day hunt. This maintains a sambar population of 70–100 individuals. They do not herd, but occur in groups of four or five animals, possible family groups. Little is known about the sambar's ecology in Florida.
Between 1930 and 1941, Sambar were brought to the US state of Texas along with other imported big game that are referred to as exotic game. 76% of fenced exotics are found on the Edwards Plateau, whereas 59% of free range exotics are found in South Texas.
References
External links
- Hunting sambar in New Zealand
- Sambar deer in New Zealand and their distribution