thumb|right|250px|Carthamus tinctoriusthumb|300px|right|Worldwide safflower production
thumb|Carthamus tinctorius - [[MHNT]]
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), also false saffron, is a highly branched, herbaceous, thistle-like annual plant in the family Asteraceae. It is one of the world's oldest crops; today, it is commercially cultivated for vegetable oil extracted from the seeds. Plants are tall with globular flower heads having yellow, orange, or red flowers. Each branch will usually have from one to five flower heads containing 15 to 20 seeds per head. Safflower is native to arid environments having seasonal rain. It grows a deep taproot which enables it to thrive in such environments.
Etymology
The word safflower is a borrowing from the Dutch, saffloer, German, safflor, and Old French, saffleur, having uncertain origin, though influenced by the words saffron and flower. The word was first used in English in the 16th century.
Biology
thumb|400x400px|Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), Illustration
Plant morphology
Safflower is a fast growing, erect, winter/spring-growing annual herb, that resembles a thistle. Originating from a leaf rosette emerges a branched central stem (also referred to as terminal stem), when day length and temperature increase. The main shoot reaches heights of . The plant also develops a strong taproot, growing as deep as . First lateral branches develop, once the main stem is about high. These lateral branches can then branch again to produce secondary and tertiary branches. The chosen variety as well as growing conditions influence the extent of branching.
The elongated and serrated leaves reach lengths of and widths of and run down the stem. The upper leaves that form the bracts are usually short, stiff and ovate, terminating in a spine.
Chemical analysis of ancient Egyptian textiles dated to the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1802 BC) identified dyes made from safflower, and garlands made from safflowers were found in the tomb of the pharaoh Tutankhamun.
The early Spanish colonies along the Rio Grande in New Mexico used safflower as a substitute for saffron in traditional recipes. An heirloom variety originating in Corrales, New Mexico, called "Corrales Azafran", is still cultivated and used as a saffron substitute in New Mexican cuisine. Also in his 14th-century work Kaftor va-Ferach (Hebrew: כפתור ופרח), Ishtori Haparchi noted that the inhabitants of the Land of Israel in his time used Safflower to dye their food as a substitute for Crocus sativus.
Cultivation
Climate
Safflower prefers high temperatures and grows best at . It tolerates , but there are also some varieties which grow under very low temperatures. Safflower is cultivated in different seasons: as a winter crop in south central India, as an early summer crop in California and as a mid-summer crop in the Northern Great Plains of the United States. Minimum length of the growing season is 120 and 200 days for summer and winter cultivars, respectively. Plant performance is highly dependent on the different planting dates in terms of temperature and day length. The tap root makes moisture from deep soil layers available. Shortly before and during maximum flowering water requirements are the highest. It stays erect and can retain the seeds in the head. Close rotation with crops susceptible to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (e.g. sunflower, canola, mustard plant and pea) should be avoided. A four-year rotation is recommended to reduce disease pressure. In a field trial in Switzerland, Botrytis cinerea was the most prevalent disease.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Summary of plant diseases occurring on safflower without consideration of the geographical distribution and importance
!Disease
!Cause
!Symptoms
!Control
|-
! colspan="4" |Bacterial diseases
|-
|Bacterial blight
|Pseudomonas syringae
|Dark, water soaked lesions on stems, leaf petioles and leaves. Red-brown necrotic spots on leaves. Severely infected plants die.
|No control reported.
|-
|Stem soft rot
|Erwinia carotovora
|Wilting. Stems have a soft internal rot.
|No control reported.
|-
! colspan="4" |Fungal diseases
|-
|Alternia leaf spot
|Alternaria carthami
|Seeds may rot or seedlings damp off. Brown spots on the cotyledons. If stem is infected plant collapses.
|Disease free seeds, fungicide treatment of seeds, resistant cultivar, hot water treatment of the seeds.
|-
|Botrytis head rot
|Botrytis cinerea
|Seed heads change color from a dark to light green followed by complete browning. Infected floral parts will be covered with a gray mold.
|No control reported.
|-
|Cercospora leaf spot
|Cercospora carthami
|At any stage of growth. Commonly round spots on lower leaves.
|No control necessary.
|-
|Colletrichum stem rot
|Colletrichum orbiculare
|Brown lesions, which can become necrotic occurring on the base of stems. Plant may die.
|No control necessary.
|-
|Fusarium wilt
|Fusarium oxysporum
|Yellowing leaves at one side of the plant beginning on the lower leaves followed by wilting. Young plants may die.
|Don't plant seeds from affected plants, fungicide treatment of seeds, rotation, resistant cultivar
|-
|Phytophtora root rot
|Phytophtora cryptogea, P. drechsleri, P. cactorum
|At any stage of growth. Lower stems of seedlings collapse. On older plants leaves turn light green or yellow, then wilt and die.
|Resistant cultivar, provide good drainage, avoid ponding of water
|-
|Powdery mildew
|Golovinomyces montagnei, Phyllactinia lappae
|Greyish (Golovinomyces) or thicker whitish (Phyllactinia) mycelium on leaf surfaces.
|No control reported.
|-
|Pythium root rot
|Pythium spp.
|Hypocotyl and first internode become water-soaked and soft with light brown discoloration. Later plant collapses
|Fungicide treatment of seeds, avoid irrigation
|-
|Ramularia leaf spot
|Ramularia carthami
|Round and regular spots in both sides of leaves. Yield and seed quality is affected.
|Rotation
|-
|Rhizocotina blight
|Rhizocotina solani
|Dark cortical lesions in the seedling stem. In advanced stages disease lesions extend up the stem. Root development is reduced
|Resistant cultivar
|-
|Rust
|Puccinia carthami
|Can occur at seedling phase or at foliage phase.
|Fungicide treatment of seeds, rotation, plow under residue, resistant cultivar
|-
|Sclerotinia stem rot
|Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
|Leaves turn yellow, wilt, turn brown and shrivel. White cottony growth on the stem. Can also affect heads. Plant may die.
|Don't plant safflower with other plants susceptible to S. sclerotiorum.
|-
|Verticillium wilt
|Verticillium wilt
|At any stage of growth. Leaves turn darker green than those of healthy plants. In older plants on lower leaves first. Unilateral leaf growth. Chlorotic areas on leaves.
|Normally minor disease. Do not rotate with cotton, peanuts and other susceptible crops.
|-
! colspan="4" |Mycoplasmal diseases
|-
|Safflower phyllody
|Safflower phyllody mycoplasma
|Abnormal axillary budding.
|Keep safflower fields free of the weed Carthamus tenuis L. because the leafhopper (vector) breeds in this weed
|-
! colspan="4" |Viral diseases
|-
|Chilli mosaic
|Chilli mosaic virus CMV
|Light and dark green patches are scattered over leaves
|No control reported.
|-
|Cucumber mosaic
|
|Light and dark green mosaic pattern primarily on upper leaves
|No control reported.
|-
|Severe mosaic
|Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV)
|Stunted plants with reduced leaf and seed head size. Seed ovules rot.
|No control reported.
|-
|Tobacco mosaic
|Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
|Blotchy light and dark green mosaic patterns on leaves.
|No control reported.
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; width:12em; text-align:center;"
|+ Safflower seed production <br><br/>
|-
|||242,172
|-
|||137,957
|-
|||90,002
|-
|||65,760
|-
|||59,230
|-
|World ||723,875
|-
|colspan=2|
|}
Production
In 2023, world production of safflower seeds was 723,875 tonnes, led by Kazakhstan with 33% of the total, and Russia and India as secondary producers (table).
Uses
Traditionally, the crop was grown for its seeds. It was also used for coloring and flavoring foods, in medicines, and making red (carthamin) and yellow dyes, especially before cheaper aniline dyes became available.
Safflower oil
For the last 50 years or so, the plant has been cultivated mainly for the vegetable oil extracted from its seeds. Safflower seed oil is flavorless and colorless. It is used mainly in cosmetics and as a cooking oil, in salad dressing, and for the production of margarine. INCI nomenclature is Carthamus tinctorius.
There are two types of safflower that produce different kinds of oil: one high in monounsaturated fatty acid (oleic acid) and the other high in polyunsaturated fatty acid (linoleic acid). Currently the predominant edible oil market is for the former, which is lower in saturated fats than olive oil. The latter is used in painting in the place of linseed oil, particularly with white paints, as it does not have the yellow tint which linseed oil possesses.
In one review of small clinical trials, safflower oil consumption reduced blood low-density lipoprotein levels – a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases – more than those seen from butter or lard consumption.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Nutrient value per 100g<br />of high-linoleic safflower seed oil
!
!
!Min
!Max
|-
| rowspan="3" |Saturated fatty acids
|Myristic C14:0
|0
|0.5
|-
|Palmitic C16:0
|4
|8.6
|-
|Stearic C18:0
|1.7
|2.6
|-
| rowspan="2" |Monounsaturated fatty acids
|Oleic C18:1
|8.1
|18.4
|-
|Eicosenoic C20:1
|0
|0.2
|-
| rowspan="3" |Polyunsaturated fatty acids
|Linoleic C18:2
|71.6
|83.7
|-
|Arachidonic C20:4
|0
|0.4
|-
|Linolenic C18:3
|0
|0.1
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Fatty acid composition of high-oleic safflower seed oil
!
!
!%
|-
| rowspan="2" |Saturated fatty acids
|Palmitic C16:0
|~5
|-
|Stearic C18:0
|~2
|-
| rowspan="1" |Monounsaturated fatty acids
|Oleic C18:1
|~78
|-
| rowspan="1" |Polyunsaturated fatty acids
|Linoleic C18:2
|~13
|-
|}
Flowers for human consumption
thumb|left|Safflower at a market
Safflower flowers are occasionally used in cooking as a cheaper substitute for saffron, sometimes referred to as "bastard saffron".
The dried safflower petals are also used as a herbal tea variety.
Dye from flowers
thumb|left|Safflower oil as a medium for [[Oil painting|oil colours]]
Safflower petals contain one red and two yellow dyes. In coloring textiles, dried safflower flowers are used as a natural dye source for the orange-red pigment carthamin. Carthamin is also known, in the dye industry, as Carthamus Red or C.I Natural Red 26 (CICN 75140). Yellow dye from safflower is known as Carthamus yellow or C.I Natural Yellow 5 (CICN -751405). One of the yellow pigments is fugitive and will wash away in cold water. The dye is suitable for cotton, which takes up the red dye, and silk, which takes up the yellow and red color yielding orange. No mordant is required. Due to the expensive nature of the dye, safflower dye was sometimes diluted with other dyestuffs, such as turmeric and sappan.
Biodegradable oil
In Australia in 2005, CSIRO and Grains Research and Development Corporation<!-- Not supported by the citation --> launched the Crop Biofactories initiative<!-- Not supported by the citation --> to produce 93% oleic oil for use as a biodegradable oil for lubricants, hydraulic fluids, and transformer oils, and as a feedstock for biopolymers and surfactants.
Insulin
Canadian biotechnology company SemBioSys Genetics created a process to extract an insulin bioequivalent to humulin from genetically modified safflower seeds. SemBioSys projected the insulin would reach the market in 2012. However, the company announced its closure in May of that year .
See also
- Conjugated linoleic acid
- Suetsumuhana
- Tsheringma
References
External links
- Safflower field crops manual, University of Wisconsin, 1992