Roberto Cofresí

Roberto Cofresí y Ramírez de Arellano (June 17, 1791 – March 29, 1825), also known as El Pirata Cofresí, was a Puerto Rican pirate. He was born into a noble family, but the political and economic difficulties faced by the island as a colony of the Spanish Empire during the regional independence wars against the metropole meant that his household was poor. Cofresí worked at sea from an early age, which familiarized him with the region's geography, but provided him with only a modest salary. He eventually decided to abandon the sailor's life and become a pirate. He had previous links to land-based criminal activities, but the reason for Cofresí's change of vocation is unknown; historians speculate that he may have worked as a privateer aboard El Scipión, a ship owned by one of his cousins.

At the height of his career, Cofresí evaded capture by vessels from Spain, Gran Colombia, the United Kingdom, Denmark, France, and the United States. He commanded several small-draft vessels, the best known a fast six-gun sloop named Anne, and he had a preference for speed and maneuverability over firepower. He manned them with small, rotating crews, which most contemporaneous documents numbered at 10 to 20. He preferred to outrun his pursuers, but his flotilla engaged the West Indies Squadron twice, attacking the schooners and . Most crew members were recruited locally, although men occasionally joined them from the other Antilles, Central America, and Europe. He never confessed to murder, but reportedly boasted about his crimes, and 300 to 400 people, mostly foreigners, died as a result of his pillaging.

Cofresí proved too much for local authorities, who accepted international help to capture him. Spain created an alliance with the West Indies Squadron and the Danish government of Saint Thomas. On March 5, 1825, the alliance set a trap that forced Anne into a naval battle. After 45 minutes, Cofresí abandoned his ship and escaped overland; he was recognized by a resident who ambushed and injured him. Cofresí was captured and imprisoned, making a last unsuccessful attempt to escape by trying to bribe an official with part of a hidden stash. The pirates were sent to San Juan, Puerto Rico, where a brief military tribunal found them guilty and sentenced them to death. On March 29, 1825, Cofresí and most of his crew were executed by firing squad.

He inspired stories and myths after his death, most emphasizing a Robin Hood-like "steal from the rich, give to the poor" philosophy which became associated with him. This portrayal has grown into legend, commonly accepted as fact in Puerto Rico and throughout the West Indies. Some of these claim that Cofresí became part of the Puerto Rican independence movement and other secessionist initiatives, including Simón Bolívar's campaign against Spain. Historical and mythical accounts of his life have inspired songs, poems, plays, books, and films. In Puerto Rico, caves, beaches, and other alleged hideouts or locations of buried treasure have been named after Cofresí, and a resort town is named for him near Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic.

Early years

Lineage

thumb|right|The Kupferschein family's coat of arms (1549)

Originally from Prague, Cofresí paternal patriarch Cristoforo Kupferschein received a recognition and coat of arms from Ferdinand I of Austria in December 1549 and eventually moved to Trieste. indicating that their name was spelled Kupferschein (not Kupferstein). His last name was probably adapted from the town of Kufstein. After its arrival, the family became one of Trieste's early settlers. Cofresí's grandfather, Giovanni Giuseppe Stanislao de Kupferschein, held several offices in the police, military and municipal administration. According to Acosta, Cofresí's father Francesco Giuseppe Fortunato von Kupferschein received a lateinschule education and left at age 19 for Frankfurt (probably in search of a university or legal practice). In Frankfurt he mingled with influential figures such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, returning to Trieste two years later. and Francesco was forced to leave after he killed Josephus Steffani on July 31, 1778. Although Steffani's death is commonly attributed to a duel, given their acquaintanceship (both worked at a criminal court) it may have been related to illegal activity. Francesco went to Barcelona, reportedly learning Spanish there. with the Spanish honorific Don ("of noble origin"). Since he was linked to illegal commerce in his homeland, he probably relocated to Cabo Rojo for strategic reasons: its harbor was far from San Juan, the capital. Francisco soon met María Germana Ramírez de Arellano y Segarra, and they married. His wife was born to Clemente Ramírez de Arellano y del Toro y Quiñones Rivera, a noble and first cousin of town founder Nicolás Ramírez de Arellano y Martínez de Matos. Her paternal family, descended from the Jimena royal dynasty of the Kingdom of Navarre and the first royal house of the Kingdom of Aragón (said house was established by a Jimena prince), owned a significant amount of land in Cabo Rojo. After their marriage the couple settled in El Tujao (or El Tujado), near the coast. Francisco's father Giovanni died in 1789, and a petition pardoning him for Steffani's murder a decade before was granted two years later (enabling him to return to Trieste).

Penniless nobleman and marauder

The Spanish American wars of independence had repercussions in Puerto Rico: due to widespread privateering and other naval warfare, maritime commerce suffered heavily. Cabo Rojo was among the municipalities affected most, with its ports at a virtual standstill. merchants were assessed higher taxes and harassed by foreigners. María died when Cofresí was four years old, and an aunt assumed his upbringing. Francisco then began a relationship with María Sanabria, the mother of his last child Julián. A don by birth, Cofresí's education was above average; since there is no evidence of a school in Cabo Rojo at that time, Francisco may have educated his children or hired a tutor. In November 1814 Francisco died, Roberto was probably homeless, with no income.

On January 14, 1815, three months after his father's death, Cofresí married Juana Creitoff in San Miguel Arcángel parish, Cabo Rojo. Three years after his marriage Cofresí owned no property and lived with his mother-in-law, Anna Cordelia. In 1818 he paid 17 maravedís in taxes, spending most of his time at sea and earning a low wage. According to historian Walter Cardona Bonet, Cofresí probably worked in a number of fishing corrals in Boquerón Bay. This connection is believed to have later protected Cofresí, since Mendoza was godfather to several of his brother Juan Francisco's children. Although Cofresí's brothers were maritime merchants and sailed a boat, Avispa, he probably worked as an able fisherman. In addition, her frequent voyages to the Mona Passage and Cofresí's recognition by local residents indicate that he occasionally accompanied Avispa That year, Cofresí and Juana lived in Barrio del Pueblo and paid higher taxes than the previous year: five reales. Europeans and refugees from the American colonies began arriving after the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815, changing the archipelago's economic and political environments. Food distribution was inefficient, particularly in non-agricultural areas. Unmotivated and desperate, the local population drifted toward crime and dissipation. The following year, Meléndez established a high-security prison at El Arsenal in San Juan. He was linked to an organization operating near the Hormigueros barrio since at least 1818 and to another nobleman, Juan Geraldo Bey. Newly appointed Puerto Rican governor Gonzalo Aróstegui Herrera immediately ordered Lieutenant Antonio Ordóñez to round up as many criminals as possible. The incident sparked an uproar in towns throughout the region, and convinced the governor that the authorities were conspiring with the criminals. Among measures taken by Aróstegui were a mayoral election in Cabo Rojo (Juan Evangelista Ramírez de Arellano, one of Cofresí's relatives, was elected) and an investigation of the former mayor. The incoming mayor was ordered to control crime in the region, an unrealistic demand with the resources at his disposal. Bernardo reportedly protected the accused and argued against pursuing the case, saying that according to "private confidences" they were fleeing to the United States. among them was the nobleman Bey, who was charged with murder. Known as "El Holandés", Bey testified that Cofresí led a criminal gang. and in July 1821 he and the rest of his gang were captured, On December 4, 1821, a wanted poster was circulated by San Germán mayor Pascacio Cardona. There is little documentation of Cofresí's whereabouts in 1822. Historians have suggested that he exploited his upper-class connections to remain concealed: the Ramírez de Arellano family held most regional public offices, and their influence extended beyond the region. Juana also visited him at his headquarters in the rural ward of Pedernales in Cabo Rojo. Although he may have been captured and imprisoned in San Juan, he does not appear in contemporary records.|group="nb" Historians agree, since several of his friends and family members benefited from the sale of stolen goods. Cofresí may have joined to evade the authorities, honing skills he would use later in life. The capture of Otter led to a court order requiring restitution, affecting the crew. At this time, Cofresí turned to piracy.

The timing of this decision was crucial in establishing him as the dominant Caribbean pirate of the era. Cofresí began his new career in early 1823, filling a role vacant in the Spanish Main since the death of Jean Lafitte, and was the last major target of West Indies anti-piracy operations. While piracy was heavily monitored and most pirates were rarely successful, Cofresí was confirmed to have plundered at least eight vessels and has been credited with over 70 captures. The letter reported that a brigantine, loaded with coffee and West Indian indigo from La Guaira, was boarded by pirates on June 12. the system was probably used to identify loaded vessels as well. According to Puerto Rican historian Aurelio Tió, Cofresí shared his loot with the needy (especially family members and close friends) and was considered the Puerto Rican equivalent of Robin Hood. Acosta disagrees, saying that any acts of generosity were probably opportunistic. Cardona Bonet's research suggests that Cofresí organized improvised markets in Cabo Rojo, where plunder would be informally sold; according to this theory, merchant families would buy goods for resale to the public.

On October 28, 1823, months after the El Scipión case was settled, Cofresí attacked a ship registered to the harbor of Patillas and robbed the small fishing boat of 800 pesos in cash. That week he also led the capture of John, an American schooner. Out of Newburyport and captained by Daniel Knight, on its way to Mayagüez the ship was intercepted by a ten-ton schooner armed with a swivel gun near Desecheo Island. Cofresí's group, consisting of seven pirates armed with sabers and muskets, stole $1,000 in cash, tobacco, tar and other provisions and the vessel's square rig and mainsail. Undercover agents were sent to the town to track them, and new mayor Juan Font y Soler requested resources to deal with a larger group which was out of control. and western Puerto Rico military commander José Rivas was ordered to exert pressure on local authorities. A detachment caught Juan José Mateu and charged him with conspiracy; A second pirate base was found at Saona, an island south of Hispaniola.

In November a number of sailors aboard El Scipión took advantage of her officers' shore leave and mutinied, seizing control of the ship. The vessel, repurposed as a pirate ship, began operating in the Mona Passage and was later seen at Mayagüez before disappearing from the record. The confession hints that the ship was captured by Hispaniola authorities. On one excursion, the pirates were intercepted by Spanish patrol boats off the coast of Samaná Province. With no apparent escape route, Cofresí is said to have ordered the vessel's sinking and it sailed into Bahía de Samaná before coming to rest near the town of Punta Gorda. The 15-year-old Goyco traveled alone on a schooner to a Santo Domingo school for his secondary education. Commercial agent and US Consul Judah Lord wrote to Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, describing the El Scipión situation and the capture of John. Adams relayed the information to Commodore David Porter, leader of the anti-piracy West Indies Squadron, who sent several ships to Puerto Rico.

International manhunt

Cofresí's victims were locals and foreigners, and the region was economically destabilized. When he boarded Spanish vessels he usually targeted immigrants brought by the royal decree of 1815, ignoring his fellow criollos. The situation was complicated by several factors, most of them geopolitical. The Spanish Empire had lost most of its possessions in the New World, and her last two territories (Puerto Rico and Cuba) faced economic problems and political unrest. To undermine the commerce of former colonies, Spain stopped issuing letters of marque; this left sailors unemployed, and they gravitated towards Cofresí and piracy. Aware that the problem had developed international overtones, Spanish-appointed governor of Puerto Rico Lt. Gen. Miguel Luciano de la Torre y Pando (1822–1837) made Cofresí's capture a priority. Gran Colombia sent two corvettes, Bocayá and Bolívar, under the command of former privateer and Jean Lafitte associate Renato Beluche.

On January 23, 1824, de la Torre implemented anti-piracy measures in response to Spanish losses and political pressure from the United States, ordering that pirates be tried in a military tribunal with the defendants considered enemy combatants. De la Torre ordered the pursuit of pirates, bandits, and those aiding them, issuing medals, certificates and bounties in gold and silver as rewards. Manuel Lamparo was captured on Puerto Rico's east coast, On February 8, 1824, the Spark arrived at Mona, conducted reconnaissance and landed. The second, Bonne Sophie, sailed from Havre de Grace under the command of a man named Chevanche with dry goods bound for Martinique. The ships were part of a convoy escorted by the Bolívar off Puerto Real, Cabo Rojo, and Cofresí captained a ship identified by Beluche as a pailebot (a small schooner). Although Bolívar could not capture her, her crew described the vessel as painted black, armed with a rotating cannon and having a crew of twenty unidentified Puerto Rican men.

On February 16, 1824, de la Torre mandated a more aggressive pursuit and prosecution of pirates. When the captain lost contact with the pirate and his wife, he was also unable to communicate with the mayor. This brought France into the search for Cofresí; the attempt was unsuccessful. Rivas then assigned Joaquín Arroyo, a retired Pedernales militiaman, to monitor activity near Cofresí's house.

thumb|1824 [[wanted poster, offering a bounty in gold and silver for Cofresí's capture]]

In April 1824, Rincón mayor Pedro García authorized the sale of a vessel owned by Juan Bautista de Salas to Pedro Ramírez. Ramírez, who may have been a member of the Ramírez de Arellano family, lived in Pedernales and was a neighbor of Cofresí's brothers and Cristobal Pabón Davila. The scandal weakened his already-frail authority, and Matías Conchuela intervened as the governor's representative. Several members of the Ramírez de Arellano family were prosecuted, including the former mayors of Añasco and Mayagüez (Manuel and José María), Tómas and Antonio. and additional searches were made in San Germán. Rivas and the military captain of Mayagüez, Cayetano Castillo y Picado, boarded a ship commanded by Sergeant Sebastián Bausá. Also known as Manuel Navarro, Fernández was connected to Cofresí through Lucas Branstan (a merchant from Trieste who was involved in Bonne Sophie incident). Poorly supplied after his hasty retreat, Cofresí docked at Jobos Bay on June 2, 1824;

However, the pirates fled the municipality and traveled west. On June 9, 1824, Cofresí led an assault on the schooner San José y Las Animas off the coast of Tallaboa in Peñuelas. Frequently used to transport cargo throughout the southern region and Saint Thomas, she made several trips to Cabo Rojo. The pirates took most of the merchandise, leaving goods valued at 418 pesos, three reales and 26 maravedi. Cargo from San José y Las Animas (clothing belonging to the brothers and a painting) was later found at Cabo Rojo. Patillas and Guayama enacted measures, monitored by the governor, which were intended to prevent further visits.

De la Torre continued his tour of the municipalities, ordering Rivas to focus on the Cabo Rojo area when he reached Mayagüez. The task was given to Lieutenant Antonio Madrona, leader of the Mayagüez garrison. The troops came close to capturing a second associate, Joaquín "El Maracaybero" Gómez. Madrona then began a surprise attack at Pedernales, Ignacio was later arrested and also charged as an accomplice. On June 22, 1824, Pedro Alacán assembled a party of eight volunteers (among them Joaquín Arroyo, possibly Mendoza's source). There were eight volunteers, The locally coordinated operation intended to ambush and apprehend Cofresí in his hideout. Although most of the pirates were captured without incident, Cofresí's second in-command Juan Portugués was shot to death in the back but Cofresí was not with his crew. Alacán was honored by the Spanish government, receiving the ship recovered from the pirates as compensation for the loss of the Avispa. Mendoza and the crew were also honored.

Shortly after the Mona expedition, Ponce mayor José Ortíz de la Renta began his own search for Cofresí. On June 30, 1824, the schooner Unión left with 42 sailors commanded by captain Francisco Francheschi. Although José "Pepe" Cartagena (a local mulatto) and Juan Geraldo Bey were found in Cabo Rojo and San Germán respectively, Cofresí avoided the troops. During the next few weeks, a joint initiative by Rivas and the west coast mayors led to the arrest of Cofresí associates Gregorio del Rosario, Miguel Hernández, Felipe Carnero, José Rodríguez, Gómez, Roberto Francisco Reifles, Sebastián Gallardo, Francisco Ramos, José Vicente and a slave of Juan Nicolás Bey (Juan Geraldo's father) known as Pablo. However, the pirate again evaded the net. In his confession, Pablo testified that Juan Geraldo Bey was an accomplice of Cofresí. The defendants were transported to San Juan, where they were prosecuted by Madrazo in a military tribunal overseen by the governor. The trial was plagued by irregularities, including Gómez' allegation that the public attorney had accepted a bribe of 300 pesos from Juan Francisco. The ship was originally stolen in San Juan by Gregorio Pereza and Francisco Pérez (both arrested during the search for Caballo Blanco) and given to Cofresí. When the news became public, mayor José María Hurtado asked local residents for help. After an unsuccessful search of nearby woods, the mayor sailed the craft to Pedernales and turned it over to Mendoza. A group left behind continued the search, but did not find anyone. as she completed a run between Guayanilla and Ponce under the command of Juan Camino. Shortly afterwards, the United States ordered captain Charles Boarman of the USS Weasel to monitor the western waters of Puerto Rico as part of an international force. the pirates stole goods and cash from the passengers. Cofresí and his crew were caught in the storm, which drove their ship towards Hispaniola. With Cofresí were two other inmates: a man known as Portalatín and Manuel Reyes Paz, former boatswain of El Scipión. However, that month Peraza, Pérez, Hernández, Gallardo, José Rodríguez and Ramos escaped from jail. Those traveling east met with Cofresí, who welcomed them on his crew; the pirate was in Naguabo looking for recruits after his return from Hispaniola. Hernández Morales, an experienced knife fighter, was second-in-command of the new crew. At the height of their success, they had a flotilla of three sloops and a schooner. The group avoided capture by hiding in Ceiba, Fajardo, Naguabo, Jobos Bay and Vieques, On October 26 the USS Beagle, commanded by Charles T. Platt, navigated by John Low and carrying shopkeeper George Bedford (with a list of plundered goods, which were reportedly near Naguabo) left Saint Thomas. When Platt disembarked in Fajardo to contact Juan Campos, a local associate of Bedford, the authorities accused him of piracy and detained him. Commodore Porter's reaction to what was later known as the Fajardo Affair led to a diplomatic crisis which threatened war between Spain and the United States; Campos was later found to be involved in the distribution of loot.

With more ships, Cofresí's activity near Culebra and Vieques peaked by November 1824.

The pirates sailed east and docked at Quebrada de las Palmas, a river in Naguabo. Joined by a fugitive, Juan Pedro Espinoza, the group robbed the house of Juan Becerril and targeted San Vicente, a Spanish sloop making its way back from Saint Thomas.|group="nb" The merchant ship, with a cargo of fabric and provisions, was attacked while its dry goods were unloaded at dockside in Jobos Bay. Neptune was owned by Salvador Pastoriza, who was supervising the unloading. Cofresí began the charge in a sloop, opening musket fire on the crew, An Italian living in Puerto Rico, Pedro Salovi, was reportedly The pirates pursued and shot those who fled.

Guayama mayor Francisco Brenes doubled his patrol. After being sentenced to death, he escaped from prison and disappeared for years. According to a St. Thomas resident, on February 12, 1825, the pirates retaliated by setting fire to a town on the island. That week, Neptune captured a Danish schooner belonging to W. Furniss (a company based in Saint Thomas) off the Ponce coast with a load of imported merchandise. on February 15, 1825, the pirates arrived in Fajardo. That night Cofresí led a group of eight pirates, stealthily boarded the ship Low met Centeno at his hacienda, where he told the Spaniard about the incident and later filed a formal complaint in Fajardo. and they stole a cannon from a gunboat (ordered by Miguel de la Torre to pursue the pirates) which was under construction.

After the hijacking, Cofresí adopted Anne as his flagship. Anne was quickly used to intercept a merchant off the coast of Vieques who was completing a voyage from Saint Croix to Puerto Rico. At this time the pirates sailed Anne towards Peñuelas, where the ship was recognized.

Capture and trial

thumb|alt=Pencil drawing of a battle between two ships|Early 20th-century illustration of the capture of Cofresí's flagship, the sloop Anne (right)

By the spring of 1825, the flotilla led by Anne was the last substantial pirate threat in the Caribbean. The incursion which finally ended Cofresí's operation began serendipitously. When Low arrived at his home base in Saint Thomas with news of Annes hijacking, a Puerto Rican ship reported a recent sighting. Sloat requested three international sloops (with Spanish and Danish papers) from the Danish governor, collaborating with Pastoriza and Pierety. All four of Cofresí's victims left port shortly after the authorization on March 4; the task force was made up of Grampus, San José y Las Animas, an unidentified vessel belonging to Pierety and a third sloop staffed by volunteers from a Colombian frigate. Although a third pirate fell during the landing, most scattered throughout rural Guayama and adjacent areas. Cofresí, injured, was accompanied by two crew members. Half his crew was captured shortly afterwards, but the captain remained at large until the following day. At midnight a local trooper, Juan Cándido Garay, and two other members of the Puerto Rican militia spotted Cofresí. The trio ambushed the pirate, who was hit by blunderbuss fire while he was fleeing. Cofresí met with mayor Francisco Brenes, offering him 4,000 pieces of eight (which he claimed to possess) in exchange for his freedom. Although a key component of modern myth, this is the only historical reference to Cofresí's hiding any treasure. Cofresí and his crew remained in Castillo San Felipe del Morro in San Juan for the rest of their lives.

Military prosecution

Cofresí received a council of war trial, with no possibility of a civil trial. The only right granted the pirates was to choose their lawyers; the arguments the attorneys could make were limited, and their role was a formality. The case was hurried—an oddity, since other cases as serious (or more so) sometimes took months or years. Cofresí was reportedly tried as an insurgent corsair (and listed as such in a subsequent explanatory action in Spain), Vicente Ximénes of Cumaná; Antonio Delgado of Humacao; Victoriano Saldaña of Juncos; Agustín de Soto of San Germán; Carlos Díaz of Trinidad de Barlovento; Carlos Torres of Fajardo; Juan Manuel Fuentes of Havana, and José Rodríguez of Curaçao. Among the few sentenced for piracy who were not executed, his sentence was to be sold at public auction with his price earmarked for trial costs. However, according to a letter sent to Hezekiah Niles' Weekly Register Cofresí admitted off the record that he had killed nearly 400 people (but no Puerto Ricans). The pirate also confessed that he burned the cargo of an American vessel to throw off the authorities. The public execution, which had a large number of spectators, was supervised by the Regimiento de Infantería de Granada between eight and nine a.m. Catholic priests were present to hear confessions and offer comfort. Another claim attributed to Cofresí's valediction is that he had "killed four hundred persons with his own hands, but never to his knowledge had he killed a native of Puerto Rico." Cofresí's last words were reportedly, "I have killed hundreds with my own hands, and I know how to die. Fire!"]]

According to several of the pirates' death certificates, they were buried on the shore next to the Santa María Magdalena de Pazzis Cemetery. Hernández Morales and several of his associates received the same treatment. Cofresí and his men were buried behind the cemetery, on what is now a lush green hill overlooking the cemetery wall. Contrary to local lore, they were not buried in Old San Juan Cemetery (Cementerio Antiguo de San Juan); their execution as criminals made them ineligible for burial in the Catholic cemetery. Due to Cofresí's squandering of his treasure, his only asset the Spanish government could seize was Carlos. Appraised at 200 pesos, he was sold to Juan Saint Just for 133 pesos. After the auction costs were paid, only 108 pesos and 2 reales were left; the remainder was paid by Félix and Miguel Mattei One of Cofresí's most notable descendants was Ana González, better known by her married name Ana G. Méndez. Cofresí's great-granddaughter, Méndez was directly descended from the Cabo Rojo bloodline through her mother Ana González Cofresí. and Juan Ignacio's lineage persists in the western region. Another family member was Severo Colberg Ramírez, speaker of the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico during the 1980s. Colberg made efforts to popularize Cofresí, particularly the heroic legends which followed his death.

After Cofresí's death, items associated with him have been preserved or placed on display. His birth certificate is at San Miguel Arcángel Church with those of other notable figures, including Ramón Emeterio Betances and Salvador Brau. Earrings said to have been worn by Cofresí were owned by Ynocencia Ramírez de Arellano, a maternal cousin. Her great-great-grandson, collector Teodoro Vidal, gave them to the National Museum of American History in 1997 and the institution displayed them in a section devoted to Spanish colonial history. Locally, documents are preserved in the Institute of Puerto Rican Culture's General Archive of Puerto Rico, the Ateneo Puertorriqueño, the University of Puerto Rico's General Library and Historic Investigation Department and the Catholic Church's Parochial Archives. Outside Puerto Rico, records can be found at the National Archives Building and the General Archive of the Indies. However, official documents relating to Cofresí's trial and execution have been lost.

Modern view

thumb|alt=Painting of Cofresí, hand on sword|Modern portrayal of Cofresí, standing on the deck of a ship and preparing for battle

Few aspects of Cofresí's life and relationships have avoided the romanticism surrounding pirates in popular culture. During his life, attempts by Spanish authorities to portray him as a menacing figure by emphasizing his role as "pirate lord" and nicknaming him the "terror of the seas" planted him in the collective consciousness. This, combined with his boldness, transformed Cofresí into a swashbuckler differing from late-19th-century fictional accounts of pirates. The legends are inconsistent in their depiction of historical facts, often contradicting each other. Cofresí's race, economic background, personality and loyalties are among variable aspects of these stories. However, the widespread use of these myths in the media has resulted in their general acceptance as fact.

The myths and legends surrounding Cofresí fall into two categories: those portraying him as a generous thief or anti-hero and those describing him as overwhelmingly evil. A subcategory represents him as an adventurer, world traveler or womanizer. Reports by historians such as Tió of the pirate sharing his loot with the needy have evolved into a detailed mythology. These apologetics attempt to justify his piracy, blaming it on poverty, revenge or a desire to restore his family's honor, and portray Cofresí as a class hero defying official inequality and corruption. He is said to have been a protector and benefactor of children, women and the elderly,

Legends describing Cofresí as malevolent generally link him to supernatural elements acquired through witchcraft, mysticism or a deal with the Devil. This horror fiction emphasizes his ruthlessness while alive or his unwillingness to remain dead. Cofresí's ghost has a fiery aura or extraordinary powers of manifestation, defending the locations of his hidden treasure or roaming aimlessly. Cofresí has been vilified by merchants. Legends portraying him as benign figure are more prevalent near Cabo Rojo; in other areas of Puerto Rico, they focus on his treasure and depict him as a cutthroat. Most of the hidden-treasure stories have a moral counseling against greed; those trying to find the plunder are killed, dragged to Davy Jones' Locker or attacked by the ghost of Cofresí or a member of his crew. Rumors about the locations of hidden treasure flourish, with dozens of coves, beaches and buildings linked to pirates in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola.

The 20th century revived interest in Cofresí's piracy as a tourist attraction, with municipalities in Puerto Rico highlighting their historical connection to the pirates. By the second half of the century, beaches and sports teams (especially in his native Cabo Rojo, which features a monument in his honor) were named for him; in the Dominican Republic, a resort town was named after the pirate. Cofresí's name has been commercialized, with a number of products and businesses adopting it and its associated legends. Puerto Rico's first flag carrier seaplane was named for him. Several attempts have been made to portray Cofresí's life on film, based on legend.

Coplas, songs and plays have been adapted from the oral tradition, and formal studies of the historical Cofresí and the legends surrounding him have appeared in book form. and the magazines Puerto Rico Ilustrado, Fiat Lux and Proceedings have published articles on the pirate.