Reactivity series

In chemistry, a reactivity series (or reactivity series of elements) is an empirical, calculated, and structurally analytical progression It is used to summarize information about the reactions of metals with acids and water, single displacement reactions and the extraction of metals from their ores.

Table

{| class = "Wikitable"

! Metal !! Ion !! Reactivity !! Extraction

|-

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Caesium&nbsp;Cs<!--Please don't add francium. Francium is very heavy, and so its electrons move fast enough that relativity must be considered. The end result is that the 7s electrons are stabilized, enough that Fr is probably actually LESS reactive than Cs! But nothing is known for sure.-->

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Cs⁺

| rowspan=8 style="background: #ffebd2" align=center | reacts with cold water

| rowspan=11 style="background: #ffebd2" align=center| Electrolysis (a.k.a. electrolytic refining)

|-

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Rubidium&nbsp;Rb

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Rb⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Potassium&nbsp;K

| style="background: #ffebd2" | K⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Sodium Na

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Na⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Lithium&nbsp;Li

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Li⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Barium&nbsp;Ba

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Ba²⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Strontium&nbsp;Sr

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Sr²⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Calcium Ca

| style="background: #ffebd2" | Ca²⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffeeff" | Magnesium&nbsp;Mg

| style="background: #ffeeff" | Mg²⁺

| rowspan=1 style="background: #ffeeff" align=center | reacts very slowly with cold water, but rapidly<br />in boiling water, and very vigorously with acids

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Beryllium&nbsp;Be

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Be²⁺

| rowspan=2 style="background: #ffffe6" align=center | reacts with acids and steam

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Aluminium&nbsp;Al

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Al³⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffeeff" | Titanium&nbsp;Ti

| style="background: #ffeeff" | Ti⁴⁺

| rowspan=1 style="background: #ffeeff" align=center | reacts with concentrated mineral acids

| rowspan=1 style="background: #ffeeff" align=center | pyrometallurgical extraction using magnesium,<br /> or less commonly other alkali metals, hydrogen or calcium in the Kroll process

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Manganese&nbsp;Mn

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Mn²⁺

| rowspan=9 style="background: #ffffe6" align=center | reacts with acids; very poor reaction with steam

| rowspan=2 style="background: #ffffe6" align=center | smelting with coke

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Zinc&nbsp;Zn

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Zn²⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Chromium&nbsp;Cr

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Cr³⁺

| rowspan=1 style="background: #ffeeff" align=center | aluminothermic reaction

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Iron&nbsp;Fe

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Fe²⁺

| rowspan=6 style="background: #ffffe6" align=center | smelting with coke

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Cadmium&nbsp;Cd

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Cd²⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Cobalt&nbsp;Co

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Co²⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Nickel&nbsp;Ni

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Ni²⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Tin&nbsp;Sn

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Sn²⁺

|-

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Lead&nbsp;Pb

| style="background: #ffffe6" | Pb²⁺

|-

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Antimony&nbsp;Sb

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Sb³⁺

| rowspan=2 style="background: #cdcdcd" align=center | may react with some strong oxidizing acids

| rowspan=10 style="background: #cdcdcd" align=center | heat or physical extraction

|-

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Bismuth&nbsp;Bi

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Bi³⁺

|-

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Copper&nbsp;Cu

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Cu²⁺

| style="background: #ffffe6" align=center | reacts slowly with air

|-

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Tungsten&nbsp;W

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | W³⁺

| rowspan=7 style="background: #cdcdcd" align=center | may react with some strong oxidizing acids

|-

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Mercury&nbsp;Hg

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Hg²⁺

|-

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Silver&nbsp;Ag

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Ag⁺

|-

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Gold&nbsp;Au

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Au³⁺

|-

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Platinum&nbsp;Pt

| style="background: #cdcdcd" | Pt⁴⁺

|}

<!--This is not the electrochemical series, but Gold's oxidation potential is more than half a volt higher than Platinum's. It is thermodynamicaly favourable for Pt to form PtO in air, and then PtO2; but Au won't form oxides spontaneously. Pt is used in crucibles etc, but this is due to its better mp/mechanical properties!-->

Going from the bottom to the top of the table the metals:

• increase in reactivity;
• lose electrons (oxidize) more readily to form positive ions;
• corrode or tarnish more readily;
• require more energy (and different methods) to be isolated from their compounds;
• become stronger reducing agents (electron donors).

Defining reactions

There is no unique and fully consistent way to define the reactivity series, but it is common to use the three types of reaction listed below, many of which can be performed in a high-school laboratory (at least as demonstrations).

The following list includes the metallic elements of the first six periods. It is mostly based on tables provided by NIST. However, not all sources give the same values: there are some differences between the precise values given by NIST and the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. In the first six periods this does not make a difference to the relative order, but in the seventh period it does, so the seventh-period elements have been excluded. (In any case, the typical oxidation states for the most accessible seventh-period elements thorium and uranium are too high to allow a direct comparison.)

Hydrogen has been included as a benchmark, although it is not a metal. Borderline germanium, antimony, and astatine have been included. Some other elements in the middle of the 4d and 5d rows have been omitted (Zr–Tc, Hf–Os) when their simple cations are too highly charged or of rather doubtful existence. Greyed-out rows indicate values based on estimation rather than experiment.

{| class="wikitable"

|-

! Z

! Sym

! Element

! Reaction

! E° (V)

|-

| 3

| Li

| lithium

| Li⁺ + e⁻ → Li

| −3.04

|-

| 55

| Cs

| caesium

| Cs⁺ + e⁻ → Cs

| −3.03

|-

| 37

| Rb

| rubidium

| Rb⁺ + e⁻ → Rb

| −2.94

|-

| 19

| K

| potassium

| K⁺ + e⁻ → K

| −2.94

|-

| 56

| Ba

| barium

| Ba²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Ba

| −2.91

|-

| 38

| Sr

| strontium

| Sr²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Sr

| −2.90

|-

| 20

| Ca

| calcium

| Ca²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Ca

| −2.87

|-

| 11

| Na

| sodium

| Na⁺ + e⁻ → Na

| −2.71

|-

| 57

| La

| lanthanum

| La³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → La

| −2.38

|-

| 39

| Y

| yttrium

| Y³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Y

| −2.38

|-

| 12

| Mg

| magnesium

| Mg²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Mg

| −2.36

|-

| 59

| Pr

| praseodymium

| Pr³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Pr

| −2.35

|-

| 58

| Ce

| cerium

| Ce³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Ce

| −2.34

|-

| 68

| Er

| erbium

| Er³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Er

| −2.33

|-

| 67

| Ho

| holmium

| Ho³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Ho

| −2.33

|-

| 60

| Nd

| neodymium

| Nd³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Nd

| −2.32

|-

| 69

| Tm

| thulium

| Tm³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Tm

| −2.32

|-

| 62

| Sm

| samarium

| Sm³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Sm

| −2.30

|- bgcolor=#e8e8e8

| 61

| Pm

| promethium

| Pm³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Pm

| −2.30

|-

| 66

| Dy

| dysprosium

| Dy³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Dy

| −2.29

|-

| 71

| Lu

| lutetium

| Lu³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Lu

| −2.28

|-

| 65

| Tb

| terbium

| Tb³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Tb

| −2.28

|-

| 64

| Gd

| gadolinium

| Gd³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Gd

| −2.28

|-

| 70

| Yb

| ytterbium

| Yb³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Yb

| −2.19

|-

| 21

| Sc

| scandium

| Sc³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Sc

| −2.09

|-

| 63

| Eu

| europium

| Eu³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Eu

| −1.99

|-

| 4

| Be

| beryllium

| Be²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Be

| −1.97

|-

| 13

| Al

| aluminium

| Al³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Al

| −1.68

|-

| 22

| Ti

| titanium

| Ti³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Ti

| −1.37

|-

| 25

| Mn

| manganese

| Mn²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Mn

| −1.18

|-

| 23

| V

| vanadium

| V²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → V

| −1.12

|-

| 24

| Cr

| chromium

| Cr²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Cr

| −0.89

|-

| 30

| Zn

| zinc

| Zn²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Zn

| −0.76

|-

| 31

| Ga

| gallium

| Ga³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Ga

| −0.55

|-

| 26

| Fe

| iron

| Fe²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Fe

| −0.44

|-

| 48

| Cd

| cadmium

| Cd²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Cd

| −0.40

|-

| 49

| In

| indium

| In³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → In

| −0.34

|-

| 81

| Tl

| thallium

| Tl⁺ + e⁻ → Tl

| −0.34

|-

| 27

| Co

| cobalt

| Co²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Co

| −0.28

|-

| 28

| Ni

| nickel

| Ni²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Ni

| −0.24

|-

| 50

| Sn

| tin

| Sn²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Sn

| −0.14

|-

| 82

| Pb

| lead

| Pb²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Pb

| −0.13

|- bgcolor=#ffcccc

| 1

| H

| hydrogen

| 2 H⁺ + 2 e⁻ → H₂

| 0.00

|- bgcolor=#e8e8e8

| 32

| Ge

| germanium

| Ge²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Ge

| +0.1

|- bgcolor=#e8e8e8

| 51

| Sb

| antimony

| Sb³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Sb

| +0.15

|-

| 83

| Bi

| bismuth

| Bi³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Bi

| +0.31

|-

| 29

| Cu

| copper

| Cu²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Cu

| +0.34

|- bgcolor=#e8e8e8

| 84

| Po

| polonium

| Po²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Po

| +0.6

|- bgcolor=#e8e8e8

| 44

| Ru

| ruthenium

| Ru³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Ru

| +0.60

|-

| 45

| Rh

| rhodium

| Rh³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Rh

| +0.76

|-

| 47

| Ag

| silver

| Ag⁺ + e⁻ → Ag

| +0.80

|-

| 80

| Hg

| mercury

| Hg²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Hg

| +0.85

|-

| 46

| Pd

| palladium

| Pd²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Pd

| +0.92

|- bgcolor=#e8e8e8

| 77

| Ir

| iridium

| Ir³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Ir

| +1.0

|- bgcolor=#e8e8e8

| 85

| At

| astatine

| At⁺ + e⁻ → At

| +1.0

|-

| 78

| Pt

| platinum

| Pt²⁺ + 2 e⁻ → Pt

| +1.18

|- bgcolor=#e8e8e8

| 79

| Au

| gold

| Au³⁺ + 3 e⁻ → Au

| +1.50

|}

The positions of lithium and sodium are changed on such a series.

Standard electrode potentials offer a quantitative measure of the power of a reducing agent, rather than the qualitative considerations of other reactive series. However, they are only valid for standard conditions: in particular, they only apply to reactions in aqueous solution. Even with this proviso, the electrode potentials of lithium and sodium – and hence their positions in the electrochemical series – appear anomalous. The order of reactivity, as shown by the vigour of the reaction with water or the speed at which the metal surface tarnishes in air, appears to be

:Cs > K > Na > Li > alkaline earth metals,

i.e., alkali metals > alkaline earth metals,

the same as the reverse order of the (gas-phase) ionization energies. This is borne out by the extraction of metallic lithium by the electrolysis of a eutectic mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride: lithium metal is formed at the cathode, not potassium.

Comparison with electronegativity values

thumb|upright=1.75

The image shows a periodic table extract with the electronegativity values of metals.

Wulfsberg distinguishes:<br> very electropositive metals with electronegativity values below 1.4<br>

electropositive metals with values between 1.4 and 1.9; and<br>

electronegative metals with values between 1.9 and 2.54.

From the image, the group 1–2 metals and the lanthanides and actinides are very electropositive to electropositive; the transition metals in groups 3 to 12 are very electropositive to electronegative; and the post-transition metals are electropositive to electronegative. The noble metals, inside the dashed border (as a subset of the transition metals) are very electronegative.

See also

• Reactivity (chemistry), which discusses the inconsistent way that the term "reactivity" is used in chemistry.

References

External links

• Science Line Chemistry