Rattan

thumbnail|[[Calamus thwaitesii in southwestern India]]

thumb|Juvenile [[Calamus oblongus subsp. mollis in a forest understory in the Philippines]]

Rattan, also spelled ratan (from Malay: rotan), is the name for roughly 600 species of Old World climbing palms belonging to subfamily Calamoideae. The greatest diversity of rattan palm species and genera are in the closed-canopy old-growth tropical forests of Southeast Asia, though they can also be found in other parts of tropical Asia and Africa. Rattan were also historically known as Manila cane or Malacca cane, based on their trade origins, as well as numerous other trade names for individual species.

Description

thumb|Close-up of the edible scaly fruits and the spiny stem of [[Calamus rotang in Thailand]]

Most rattan palms are classified ecologically as lianas because most mature rattan palms have a vine-like habit, scrambling through and over other vegetation. However, they are different from true woody lianas in several ways. Because rattans are palms, they do not branch and they rarely develop new root structures upon contact of the stem with soil. They are monocots, and thus, do not exhibit secondary growth. This means the diameter of the rattan stem is always constant: juvenile rattan palms have the same width as when adult, usually around in diameter, with long internodes between the leaves. This also means juvenile rattan palms are rigid enough to remain free-standing, unlike true lianas which always need structural support, even when young. Many rattans also have spines which act as hooks to aid climbing over other plants, and to deter herbivores. The spines also give rattans the ability to climb wide-diameter trees, unlike other vines which use tendrils or twining which can only climb narrower supports.

Rattans can also be solitary (single-stemmed), clustering (clump-forming), or both. Solitary rattan species grow into a single stem. Clustering rattan, on the other hand, develop clumps of up to 50 stems via suckers, similar to bamboo and bananas. These clusters can produce new stems continually as individual stems die. The impact of harvesting is much greater in solitary species, since the whole plant dies when harvested. An example of a commercially important single-stemmed species is Calamus manan. Clustering species, on the other hand, have more potential to become sustainable if the rate of harvesting does not exceed the rate of stem replacement via vegetative reproduction. and three are endemic to Africa: Laccosperma (syn. Ancistrophyllum), Eremospatha and Oncocalamus. 2ºed. 2008), and also Dransfield & Manokaran (1993), a great deal of basic introductory information is available.

| Sabah || Dransfield, 1984

| Sarawak || Dransfield, 1992a

| Brunei || Dransfield, 1998

| Sri Lanka || de Zoysa & Vivekanandan, 1994

| India (general) || Basu, 1992

| India (Western Ghats) || Renuka, 1992

| India (south) || Lakshmana, 1993

| Andaman and Nicobar Islands || Renuka, 1995

| Bangladesh || Alam, 1990

| Papua New Guinea || Johns & Taurereko, 1989a, 1989b (preliminary notes only)

| Irian Jaya || Currently (2002) under study at Kew (Baker & Dransfield)

| Indonesia || Dransfield and Mogea [to 2002 in prep.]; more field work needed

| Laos || Currently (2002) in prep. (Evans)

| Thailand || Hodel, 1998

| Africa || Currently (2002) in prep. (Sunderland)

Uses by taxon.

The major commercial species of rattan canes as identified for Asia by Dransfield and Manokaran (1993) and for Africa, by Tuley (1995) and Sunderland (1999) (Desmoncus not treated here):

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"

! Species of Calamus !! Notes of utilization

| Calamus acanthospathus Griff. || Canes for bridge cables, basketry

| Calamus andamanicus Kurz || Excellent large-diameter canes harvested for furniture industry; leaves for thatching

| Calamus aruensis Becc. || Excellent quality medium- to large-diameter canes for furniture

| Calamus arugda Becc. || Entire canes for handicrafts, furniture, basketry, etc., local and export markets

| Calamus axillaris Becc. || Small-diameter canes for basketry, fish traps and tying

| Calamus bacularis Becc. || Canes for walking-sticks

| Calamus bicolor Becc. || Ornamental use of young plants

| Calamus blumei Becc. || Canes of good quality but quantities insufficient for commercial use; canes for baskets and mats

| Calamus boniensis Becc. ex Heyne || Probably sold together with other small-diameter canes

| Calamus burckianus Becc. || Canes for broom handles

| Calamus caesius Bl. || Canes for commercial and traditional uses

| Calamus castaneus Becc. || Leaves for thatch; immature fruits in traditional medicine

| Calamus ciliaris Bl. || Slender canes for weaving and binding; seedlings used as ornamentals

| Calamus conirostris Becc. || Canes of poor quality, rarely used; fruit eaten

| Calamus convallium J. Dransf. || Canes

| Calamus cumingianus Becc. || Entire canes made into handicrafts, furniture and baskets

| Calamus deërratus G. Mann & H. Wendl. || Canes for construction and weaving

| Calamus densiflorus Becc. || Canes for making furniture and baskets

| Calamus didymocarpus Warb. ex Becc. || Canes inferior but used for local furniture-making

| Calamus diepenhorstii Miq. || Canes for tying, cordage, basketry, fish traps and noose traps

| Calamus dimorphacanthus Becc. var. dimorphacanthus || Canes used for baskets, bags, tying, etc. for home industries

| Calamus discolor Becc. || Young plants as ornamentals; canes for binding or tying

| Calamus egregius Burr. || Excellent small- to medium-diameter canes for binding and weaving in furniture; new shoots edible

| Calamus elmerianus Becc. || Canes for furniture, handicrafts and home industries

| Calamus erioacanthus Becc. || Canes of good quality

| Calamus exilis Griff. || Canes for binding, weaving, basketry, handicrafts

| Calamus flabellatus Becc. || Canes for tying, binding and weaving

| Calamus gamblei Becc. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus gibbsianus Becc. || Canes for tying and weaving

| Calamus gonospermus Becc. || Edible fruit

| Calamus gracilis Roxb. || Canes for handicrafts

| Calamus grandifolius Becc. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus guruba (Buch-Ham) ex Mart. || Canes for basketry, chair seats

| Calamus halconensis (Becc.) Baja-Lapis var. dimorphacanthus Becc. || Canes for chair frames, cables for ferry boats, hauling logs and as rigging on small sailboats; split canes for mats, basketry, fish traps, chair seats

| Calamus heteroideus Bl. || Canes for cordage

| Calamus hispidulus Becc. || Canes for weaving

| Calamus hookerianus Becc. || Canes for furniture, basketry

| Calamus huegelianus Mart. || Canes for basketry, chair frames, etc.

| Calamus inermis T. Anders. || Canes for police sticks, chair frames

| Calamus inops Becc. ex Heyne || Actual use of small- to medium-diameter canes not known

| Calamus insignis Becc. || Split canes for basketry, cordage; spiny leaf-sheaths as food graters

| Calamus javensis Bl. || Canes for cordage, basketry, noose traps, musical instruments; edible raw cabbage as medicine; spiny leaf-sheaths formerly used to make food graters

| Calamus koordersianus Becc. || Canes locally for basket frames

| Calamus laevigatus Mart. || Extensively collected as small-diameter cane, end-uses not documented

| Calamus latifolius Roxb. || Canes for basketry, walking-sticks, furniture frames; split canes for chair seats

| Calamus leiocaulis Becc. ex Heyne || Small-diameter canes extensively used to make furniture for local and export markets

| Calamus leptospadix Griff. || Canes for basketry and chair seats

| Calamus leptostachys Becc. ex Heyne || Excellent small-diameter canes for furniture and handicrafts for local and export markets

| Calamus longisetus Griff. || Coarse cane for furniture; leaves for thatch; edible fruit

| Calamus longispathus Ridl. || Young leaves occasionally as cigarette paper; fruits as medicine

| Calamus luridus Becc. || Canes split for tying and binding

| Calamus manan Miq. || Most desirable large-diameter canes for furniture

| Calamus manillensis (Mart.) H. Wendl. || Edible fruit; canes of inferior quality for tying

| Calamus marginatus (Bl.) Mart. || Poor quality but durable canes for basket frames and walking-sticks

| Calamus mattanensis Becc. || Canes occasionally used to make coarse baskets

| Calamus megaphyllus Becc. || Canes for basketry and tying

| Calamus melanorhynchus Becc. || Canes for basketry and handicrafts

| Calamus merrillii Becc. || Entire canes for chair frames, ferry boat cables, hauling logs, sailboat rigging; split canes for basketry, chairs, fish traps, etc.

| Calamus microcarpus Becc. || Canes for basketry

| Calamus microsphaerion Becc. || Entire canes for basketry

| Calamus minahassae Becc. || Canes as cordage

| Calamus mindorensis Becc. || Popular large-diameter canes for furniture; split canes for basketry, cordage

| Calamus mitis Becc. || Canes for basketry and tying

| Calamus moseleyanus Becc. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus multinervis Becc. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus muricatus Becc. || Cabbage eaten

| Calamus myriacanthus Becc. || Canes for walking-sticks, cages, basket frames

| Calamus nagbettai Fernandez & Dey || Canes for basketry

| Calamus nambariensis Becc. || Canes for handicrafts

| Calamus optimus Becc. || Canes used to make mats, for weaving, to bind furniture and cordage

| Calamus ornatus Bl. || Major use of canes for furniture; also for walking-sticks, handles for implements and flooring; leaves, cabbage and roots as medicine; fruits occasionally eaten

| Calamus ovoideus Thwaites ex Trimen || Split canes for basketry; entire canes for furniture frames; split cane cores for crude woven products

| Calamus oxleyanus Teysm. & Binnend. ex Miq. || Canes for walking-sticks

| Calamus palustris Griff. || Canes excellent for furniture frames

| Calamus pandanosmus Furt. || Canes

| Calamus paspalanthus Becc. || Seedlings as potential ornamental; ripe fruit pickled and young shoot eaten

| Calamus pedicellatus Becc. ex Heyne || Canes apparently of good quality for furniture

| Calamus perakensis Becc. || Canes occasionally used for walking-sticks

| Calamus peregrinus Furt. || Robust canes of good quality for furniture

| Calamus pilosellus Becc. || Canes of good appearance but probably only for local use

| Calamus pogonacanthus Becc. ex H. Winkler || Canes of good quality for tying, binding and making coarse mats

| Calamus poilanei Conrad || Canes for handicrafts

| Calamus polystachys Becc. || Coarse canes used for broom handles

| Calamus pseudorivalis Becc. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus pseudotenuis Becc. || Canes for basketry

| Calamus pseudoulur Becc. || Canes for basketry, etc.

| Calamus ramulosus Becc. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus reyesianus Becc. || Canes of small diameter use for furniture and basketry, local and international

| Calamus rhomboideus Bl. || Canes possibly used to make baskets and mats

| Calamus rhytidomus Becc. || Canes used locally for binding

| Calamus rotang Linn. || Canes for basketry, chair seats

| Calamus rudentum Lour. || Canes for handicrafts; edible fruit

| Calamus ruvidus Becc. || Canes used for basketry and tying

| Calamus scabridulus Becc. || Canes split for tying, thatching and cordage

| Calamus scipionum Lour. || Canes for making moderate-quality furniture; walking-sticks, umbrella handles, etc.

| Calamus sedens J. Dransf. || Canes sometimes used to make walking-sticks

| Calamus semoi Becc. || Excellent quality cane; under cultivation in gardens

| Calamus simplex Becc. || Canes for basketry

| Calamus simplicifolius Wei || Good medium-diameter cane for furniture, binding, weaving, basketry, etc.; new shoots edible

| Calamus siphonospathus Mart. || Canes for basketry and tying

| Calamus solitarius T. Evans et al. || Canes for handicrafts

| Calamus spinifolius Becc. || Canes for basketry and tying

| Calamus subinermis H. Wendl. ex Becc. || Canes for furniture frames; cabbage cooked as a vegetable; fruit sometimes eaten

| Calamus symphysipus Becc. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus tenuis Roxb. || Canes for basketry; fruits and young shoots eaten

| Calamus tetradactylus Hance || Small-diameter canes for handicrafts, basketry and furniture

| Calamus thwaitesii Becc. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus tomentosus Becc. || Canes for tying and binding

| Calamus trachycoleus Becc. || Canes used as skin peels for weaving chair seats and back; unsplit for furniture; basketry, mats, fish traps, cordage

| Calamus travancoricus Bedd. ex Becc. & Hook || Canes for handicrafts and furniture

| Calamus trispermus Becc. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus tumidus Furt. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus ulur Becc. || Split canes for cordage

| Calamus unifarius H. Wendl. || Canes locally for furniture

| Calamus usitatus Becc. || Canes for basketry, furniture and handicrafts

| Calamus vidalianus Becc. || Canes for furniture

| Calamus viminalis Willd. || Canes locally for basketry and matting

| Calamus wailong S.J. Pei & S.Y. Chen || Canes for weaving and furniture

| Calamus warburgii K. Schum. || Canes locally for basket frames

| Calamus ollingeri Becc. || Canes for furniture frames

Other traditional uses of rattans by species:

Ecology

Many rattan species also form mutualistic relationships with ant species. They provide ant shelters (myrmecodomatia) like hollow spines, funnel-shaped leaves, or leaf sheath extensions (ochreae). The rattans in turn, gain protection from herbivores.

Conservation

thumb|Rattan (center) in an old-growth forest in [[Palawan, Philippines]]

Rattans are threatened with overexploitation, as harvesters are cutting stems too young and reducing their ability to resprout. Unsustainable harvesting of rattan can lead to forest degradation, affecting overall forest ecosystem services. Processing can also be polluting. The use of toxic chemicals and petrol in the processing of rattan affects soil, air and water resources, and also ultimately people's health. Meanwhile, the conventional method of rattan production is threatening the plant's long-term supply, and the income of workers.

Rattans also exhibit rapid population growths in disturbed forest edges due to higher light availability than in the closed-canopy old-growth tropical forests. Although this can mean increased rattan abundance for economic exploitation, it can also be problematic in long-term conservation efforts.

Rattan harvesting from the wild in most rattan-producing countries requires permits. These include the Philippines, Sri Lanka, India, Malaysia, Laos, Ghana, and Cameroon. In addition, the Philippines also imposes an annual allowable cut in an effort to conserve rattan resources. Rattan cultivation (both monoculture and intercropping) is also being researched and pioneered in some countries, though it is still a young industry and only constitutes a minority of the rattan resources harvested annually.

Uses

thumb|Wild-harvested rattan canes being treated and dried in [[Palawan, Philippines]]thumb|Worker harvesting rattan from an [[old-growth forest in the Philippines]]

In forests where rattan grows, its economic value can play a crucial role in conservation efforts. By offering an alternative source of income, rattan harvesting can deter loggers from engaging in timber logging. Harvesting rattan canes is simpler and requires less sophisticated tools compared to logging operations. Furthermore, rattan grows rapidly, which facilitates quicker replenishment compared to tropical wood species.This economic incentive supports forest maintenance by providing a profitable crop that complements rather than competes with trees. However, the long-term profitability and utility of rattan compared to other alternatives remain subjects of ongoing evaluation and study.

Cleaned rattan stems with the leaf sheaths removed are superficially similar to bamboo. Unlike bamboo, rattan stems are not hollow. Most (70%) of the world's rattan population exists in Indonesia, distributed among the islands Borneo, Sulawesi, and Sumbawa. The rest of the world's supply comes from the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Bangladesh and Assam, India.

Food source

thumbnail|right|[[Pickling|Pickled lituko (Calamus manillensis fruits) from Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines]]

Some rattan fruits are edible, with a sour taste akin to citrus. The fruit of some rattans exudes a red resin called dragon's blood; this resin was thought to have medicinal properties in antiquity and was used as a dye for violins, among other things. The resin normally results in a wood with a light peach hue.

The stem tips are rich in starch, and can be eaten raw or roasted. Long stems can be cut to obtain potable water. The palm heart can also be eaten raw or cooked.

Medicinal potential

In early 2010, scientists in Italy announced that rattan wood would be used in a new "wood to bone" process for the production of artificial bone. The process takes small pieces of rattan and places them in a furnace. Calcium and carbon are added. The wood is then further heated under intense pressure in another oven-like machine, and a phosphate solution is introduced. This process produces almost an exact replica of bone material. The process takes about 10 days. At the time of the announcement the bone was being tested in sheep, and there had been no signs of rejection. Particles from the sheep's bodies have migrated to the "wood bone" and formed long, continuous bones. The new bone-from-wood programme is being funded by the European Union. By 2023, experimental implants into humans were taking place. A scientific payload to study a Rattan-wood artificial bone scaffold will be sent to the International Space Station on SpaceX CRS-34.

Rattan handicrafts and furniture

thumb|, a traditional woven rattan pattern from the Philippines

Rattan is extensively used for making handicrafts (like baskets), furniture, and decorative art. Generally, raw rattan is processed into several products to be used as materials. Whole rattan stems can be used like wood as the framework for furniture and larger handicrafts. It can accept paints and stains much like other types of wood. The outer layers can be pared off into strips, to be used as rattan weaving material. Rattan is a popular material for furniture-making, mainly because it is lightweight, durable, and, to a certain extent, flexible and suitable for outdoor use.

thumb|left|upright|The Yoda Chair, one of the most iconic rattan chair designs of [[Filipino people|Filipino industrial designer Kenneth Cobonpue]]

thumb|upright|[[Wiener Geflecht Chair, Josephinism style, typical Viennese, around 1780. The seat and back wickerwork panels are woven of rattan, while the frame is hardwood.]]

Woven rattan panels in various patterns are also used for furniture whose framework can be made of rattan canes or from hardwood. One of the most common weaving patterns is the (also spelled sulihiya, from Spanish , "latticework"), a traditional open weaving pattern originating from the Philippines. It features a distinctive repetitive grid of sunburst shapes with large hexagonal gaps, allowing air to freely flow through, a necessity in the hot tropics. This weaving pattern (originally used in wall panels and baskets) became incorporated into traditional long-armed lounge chairs () and for siesta day beds () during the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines before spreading throughout Southeast Asia.

The standard six-way weave with hexagonal holes is more accurately known as the . It has several variations, including a simpler four-way weave (), more intricate diamond weaves (used for high-end furniture and decorative items), and stronger double weaves (which feature two layers of rattan woven together for extra strength).

In Europe, an identical pattern to the six-way weave is known as the Wiener Geflecht ("Viennese Braiding"), as it first became popular in 18th century Vienna. This pattern was later prominently used by Thonet for their No. 14 chair.

File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Indonesiërs maken meubelstukken van rotan Zuid-Celebes TMnr 10011484.jpg|Indonesians making rattan furniture,

File:Rattan chair.jpg|A rattan chair

File:Rattan sepak tawraw ball.png|A rattan ball of Sepak takraw

File:USAID Measuring Impact Conservation Enterprise Retrospective (Philippines; Nagkakaisang Tribu ng Palawan) (25421842347).jpg|Craftsman in the Philippines heat bending rattan for furniture-making

File:Cane Furniture Maker, Kwara State, Nigeria.jpg|Craftsman weaving a basket made from split rattan in Nigeria

File:Rottingkorg - Rattan Basket - Sweden-2023.jpg |A basket made of rattan

File:Bawod Chair.jpg|Bawod ("Wave") rattan chair by Filipino industrial designer Kenneth Cobonpue, a modern design using traditional Cebuano basket-weaving techniques

</gallery>

Clothing

Traditionally, the women of the Wemale ethnic group of Seram Island, Indonesia wore rattan girdles around their waist.

Corporal punishment

Thin rattan canes were the standard implement for school corporal punishment in England and Wales, and are still used for this purpose in schools in Malaysia, Singapore, and several African countries. Similar canes are used for military punishments in the Singapore Armed Forces. Heavier canes, also of rattan, are used for judicial corporal punishments in Aceh, Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore.

Wicks

Rattan is the preferred natural material used to wick essential oils in aroma reed diffusers (commonly used in aromatherapy, or merely to scent closets, passageways, and rooms), because each rattan reed contains 20 or more permeable channels that wick the oil from the container up the stem and release fragrance into the air, through an evaporation diffusion process. In contrast, reeds made from bamboo contain nodes that inhibit the passage of essential oils.

Shelter material

Most natives or locals from the rattan rich countries employ the aid of this sturdy plant in their home building projects. It is heavily used as a housing material in rural areas. The skin of the plant or wood is primarily used for weaving.

Tools and equipment

Due to its durability and resistance to splintering, sections of rattan can be used as canes, crooks for high-end umbrellas, or staves for martial arts. Rattan sticks long, called baston, are used in Filipino martial arts, especially Arnis/Eskrima/Kali and for the striking weapons in the Society for Creative Anachronism's full-contact "armoured combat".

Rattan cane is also used traditionally to make polo mallets, though only a small portion of cane harvested (roughly 3%) is strong, flexible, and durable enough to be made into sticks for polo mallets, and popularity of rattan mallets is waning next the more modern variant, fibrecanes.

Along with birch and bamboo, rattan is a common material used for the handles in percussion mallets, especially mallets for keyboard percussion, e.g., marimba, vibraphone, xylophone, etc.

Weaponry

thumb|[[Sibat spears from the Philippines]]

thumb|Rattan [[ferrule on the hilt of a Visayan sword from the Philippines, ]]

Fire-hardened rattan were commonly used as the shafts of Philippine spears collectively known as sibat. They were fitted with a variety of iron spearheads and ranged from short throwing versions to heavy thrusting weapons. They were used for hunting, fishing, or warfare (both land and naval warfare). The rattan shafts of war spears are usually elaborately ornamented with carvings and metal inlays. Arnis also makes prominent use of rattan as "arnis sticks", commonly called yantok or baston. Their durability and weight makes it ideal for training with complex execution of techniques as well as being a choice of weapon, even against bladed objects.

Round shields known as taming from various ethnic groups in the Philippines and parts of Borneo can also be made from tightly-woven rattan.

Rattan shields were historically used in ancient, medieval and early modern China and Korea. According to some contemporary sources, they were reasonably effective against both arrows and early firearms.

It sees also prominent use in battle re-enactments as stand-ins to potentially lethal weapons.

Rattan can also be used to build a functional sword that delivers a non-lethal but similar impact compared to steel counterparts.