Quinoa - WikiHQ

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa; , from Quechua ' or ') is a flowering plant in the amaranth family. It is an herbaceous annual plant grown as a crop primarily for its edible seeds; the seeds are high in protein, dietary fiber, B vitamins and dietary minerals especially potassium and magnesium in amounts greater than in many grains. Quinoa is not a grass but rather a pseudocereal botanically related to spinach and amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), and originated in the Andean region of northwestern South America. It was first used to feed livestock 5,2007,000 years ago, and for human consumption 3,0004,000 years ago in the Lake Titicaca basin of Bolivia and Peru.

The plant thrives at high elevations and produces seeds that are rich in protein. Almost all production in the Andean region is done by small farms and associations. Its cultivation has spread to more than 70 countries, including Kenya, India, the United States, and European countries. As a result of increased consumption in North America, Europe, and Australasia, quinoa crop prices tripled between 2006 and 2014, entering a boom and bust cycle.

The quinoa monoculture that arose from increased production, combined with climate change effects in the native Andean region, created challenges for production and yield, and led to environmental degradation.

Description

thumb|Quinoa seedsChenopodium quinoa is a dicotyledonous annual plant, usually about high. It has broad, generally powdery, hairy, lobed leaves, normally arranged alternately. The woody central stem is branched or unbranched depending on the variety and may be green, red or purple. The flowering panicles arise from the top of the plant or from leaf axils along the stem. Each panicle has a central axis from which a secondary axis emerges either with flowers (amaranthiform) or bearing a tertiary axis carrying the flowers (glomeruliform).

The green hypogynous flowers have a simple perianth and are generally self-fertilizing, though cross-pollination occurs. In the natural environment, betalains serve to attract animals to generate a greater rate of pollination and ensure, or improve, seed dissemination. The fruits (seeds) are about in diameter and of various colors — from white to red or black, depending on the cultivar.

In regards to the "newly" developed salinity resistance of C.quinoa, some studies have concluded that accumulation of organic osmolytes plays a dual role for the species. They provide osmotic adjustment, in addition to protection against oxidative stress of the photosynthetic structures in developing leaves. Studies also suggested that reduction in stomatal density in reaction to salinity levels represents an essential instrument of defence to optimize water use efficiency under the given conditions to which it may be exposed.

Taxonomy

The species Chenopodium quinoa was first described by Carl Ludwig Willdenow (1765–1812), a German botanist who studied plants from South America, brought back by explorers Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé Bonpland.

Quinoa is an allotetraploid plant, containing two full sets of chromosomes from two different species which hybridised with each other at one time. According to a 1979 study, its presumed ancestor is either Chenopodium berlandieri, from North America, or the Andean species Ch. hircinum. On the other hand, morphological features relate Ch.quinoa of the Andes and Ch. nuttalliae of Mexico. More recent studies indicate that Andean and Mexican quinoas were independently domesticated and that both derive from wild North American C. berlandieri, carrying the genome formula AABB, and are likely derived from a hybridization several million years ago between AA and BB diploids closely related to the modern C. subglabrum and C. suecicum, respectively. Quinoa's wild South American ancestor, C. hircinum, may have been translocated from North to South America via zoochory. A feral-weedy quinoa, Ch.quinoa var. melanospermum, is known from South America, but no equivalent closely related to Ch.nutalliae has been reported from Mexico so far.

A second bottleneck may have occurred when quinoa was domesticated from its wild tetraploid ancestor, C. hircinum. It might have been domesticated twice: once in the high Andes and a second time in the Chilean and Argentinean lowlands.
A third bottleneck can be considered "political", and has lasted more than 400 years, from the Spanish conquest of the new continent until the present time. During this phase quinoa has been replaced with maize, marginalized from production processes possibly due to its social and religious roles for the indigenous populations of South America, but also because it is difficult to process (dehusk) compared with maize.
In the 21st century, a fourth bottleneck event may occur, as traditional farmers migrate from rural zones to urban centers, which exposes quinoa to the risk of further genetic erosion. Better breeding may also result in loss of genetic diversity, as breeders would be expected to reduce unwanted alleles to produce uniform cultivars, but cross-breeding between local landraces has and will likely produce high-diversity cultivars. There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (Chenopodium quinoa var. melanospermum) that grow in the area it is cultivated; these may either be related to wild predecessors, or they could be descendants of cultivated plants. thumb|Chenopodium quinoa near Cachilaya, [[Lake Titicaca, Bolivia]]

Cultivation

Over the last 5,000years the biogeography of Ch. quinoa has changed greatly, mainly by human influence, convenience and preference. It has changed not only in the area of distribution, but also with regard to the climate this plant was originally adapted to, in contrast to the climates on which it is able to successfully grow in now. In a process started by a number of pre-Inca South American indigenous cultures, people in Chile have been adapting quinoa to salinity and other forms of stress over the last 3,000years.

In 2004, the international community became increasingly interested in quinoa and it entered a boom and bust economic cycle that would last for over ten years. Between 2004 and 2011, quinoa became a more interesting commodity and global excitement for it increased. At this point, Bolivia and Peru were the only major producers of quinoa. In 2013, there was an extreme increase in imports of quinoa by the United States, Canada and various European countries. In 2016, growth began to slow. Imports were still increasing but at a slower rate and quinoa prices declined as other countries began producing it.

Particularly for the high variety of Chilean landraces, in addition to how the plant has adapted to different latitudes, this crop is now potentially cultivable almost anywhere in the world. In this high-altitude desert valley, maximum summer temperatures rarely exceed and night temperatures are about . In the 2010s, experimental production was attempted in the Palouse region of Eastern Washington, and farmers in Western Washington began producing the crop. The Washington State University Skagit River Valley research facility near Mount Vernon grew thousands of its own experimental varieties. The Puget Sound region's climate is similar to that of coastal Chile where the crop has been grown for centuries. Due to the short growing season, North American cultivation requires short-maturity varieties, typically of Bolivian origin. Quinoa is planted in Idaho where a variety developed and bred specifically for the high-altitude Snake River Plain is the largest planted variety in North America.

Europe

Several countries within Europe have successfully grown quinoa on a commercial scale.

Sowing

Quinoa requires a significant amount of precipitation in order to germinate, therefore the traditional sowing date in Peru was between September and November. To increase the chance that more crops survive it would be advantageous to split up the sowing date among the plants. Traditionally quinoa was sowed by broadcast, in rows or grooves, or by broadcast and then making rows. Soil preparation should occur before sowing, and weeding should come soon after sowing the seeds.

Rotation is used in its Andean native range. Rotation is common with potato, cereals and legumes including Lupinus mutabilis. Traditionally, quinoa rotation happens in plots called aynoqas. These are made up of different sized plots in different zones, and each family unit would own plots in different areas. The aynoqas allowed for better crop yield, agricultural and ecological sustainability, and food security within communities.

Quinoa has gained attention for its adaptability to contrasting environments such as saline soils, nutrient-poor soils and drought stressed marginal agroecosystems.

Genetics

The genome of quinoa was sequenced in 2017. Through traditional selective breeding and, potentially, genetic engineering, the plant is being modified to have higher crop yield, improved tolerance to heat and biotic stress, and greater sweetness through saponin inhibition. The crop yield in the Andean region (often around 3 t/ha up to 5 t/ha) is comparable to wheat yields. In the United States, varieties have been selected for uniformity of maturity and are mechanically harvested using conventional small grain combines.

Processing

The plants are allowed to stand until the stalks and seeds have dried out and the grain has reached a moisture content below 10%.

Handling involves threshing the seedheads from the chaff and winnowing the seed to remove the husk. Before storage, the seeds need to be dried in order to avoid germination.

Production

{| class="wikitable floatright col2right"

|+ Quinoa production <br /><br/>

| || 70,479

| || 41,380

| || 378

| World || 112,251

| colspan="2" |

In 2023, world production of quinoa was 112,251 tonnes, led by Peru with 62% of the total and Bolivia with 37% (table).

Price

Since the early 21st century when quinoa became more commonly consumed in North America, Europe, and Australasia where it was not typically grown, the crop value increased. Between 2006 and 2013, quinoa crop prices tripled. By 2013, quinoa was being cultivated in some 70 countries. From 2018 to 2019, quinoa production in Peru declined by 22%. and other commentary indicated similar conclusions, including for women specifically. It has also been suggested that as quinoa producers rise above subsistence-level income, they switch their own consumption to Western processed foods which are often less healthy than a traditional, quinoa-based diet, whether because quinoa is held to be worth too much to keep for oneself and one's family, or because processed foods have higher status despite their poorer nutritional value. State regulation and enforcement may promote a shift to cash-cropping among some farmers and a shift toward subsistence production among others, while enabling many urban refugees to return to working the land, outcomes with complex and varied social effects.

The growth of quinoa consumption outside of its indigenous region has raised concerns over food security of the indigenous original consumers, unsustainably intensive farming of the crop, expansion of farming into otherwise marginal agricultural lands with concurrent loss of the natural environment, threatening both the sustainability of producer agriculture and the biodiversity of quinoa.

The Guardian has presented the rising world demand for quinoa as caused by rising veganism. Particularly in the Uyuni salt flats, soil degradation has occurred due to mechanized production and decreased vegetation cover after clearing for quinoa fields. and reducing the nutrient quality of the soil.

Quinoa became a grain of growing interest partially due to its ability to withstand many different climate conditions. Its native Andean region is prone to dry and wet spells, and to cold and hot temperatures. The randomness of weather conditions due to climate change has hindered development of quinoa crops. it is a major goal of quinoa breeding programs, which may include genetic engineering. In South America, these saponins have many uses, including as a detergent for clothing and washing, and as a folk medicine antiseptic for skin injuries.

Uses

left|thumb|Quinoa is typically cooked by boiling it in water or broth until the grains become tender

The increasing demand for quinoa is partially due to the attention it received as a food that may help alleviate food insecurity in some world regions. Quinoa is high in protein, which makes it a possible alternative to meat for vegetarians and vegans, and for people who are lactose intolerant. It also has high concentrations of dietary minerals. Quinoa does not contain gluten. Some studies suggest that consuming quinoa may help improve early indicators of type 2 diabetes. Some of these qualities may have improved the market to economically privileged people in North America, possibly increasing the price of quinoa.

For the Indigenous communities, growing quinoa represented food security and well-being, and it was involved in almost every meal of the day.

Nutrition

Raw, uncooked quinoa is 13% water, 64% carbohydrates, 14% protein, and 6% fat. Nutritional evaluations indicate that a serving of raw quinoa seeds has a food energy of and is a rich source (20% or higher of the Daily Value, DV) of protein, dietary fiber, several B vitamins, including 46%DV for folate, and for several dietary minerals such as magnesium (55%DV), manganese (95%DV), phosphorus (65%DV), and zinc (33%DV).

After boiling, which is the typical preparation for eating the seeds, many nutritional evaluations change. Although a serving of cooked quinoa increases to 72% water, most nutritional evaluations are reduced, such as, 21% carbohydrates, 4% protein, and 2% fat, it has been selected as an experimental crop in NASA's Controlled Ecological Life Support System for long-duration human occupied space flights.

In culture

United Nations recognition

The United Nations General Assembly declared 2013 as the "", in recognition of the ancestral practices of the Andean people, who have preserved it as a food for present and future generations, through knowledge and practices of living in harmony with nature. The objective was to draw the world's attention to the role that quinoa could play in providing food security, nutrition and poverty eradication in support of achieving Millennium Development Goals. Some academic commentary emphasized that quinoa production could have ecological and social drawbacks in its native regions, and that these problems needed to be tackled. Several kosher certification organizations refuse to certify it as being kosher for Passover, citing reasons including its resemblance to prohibited grains or fear of cross-contamination of the product from nearby fields of prohibited grain or during packaging. However, in December 2013 the Orthodox Union, the world's largest kosher certification agency, announced it would begin certifying quinoa as kosher for Passover.

Gallery

File:Dev black seed in quinoa flower.JPG|Developing black quinoa seed

File:Quinoa flower.JPG|Quinoa flower

File:Quinoa.jpg|Quinoa seeds

File:White, red, and black quinoa.jpg|White, red, and black quinoa mix

</gallery>

References

Bibliography