In classical mythology, Psyche (; ; ) is the immortal wife of Cupid, Roman god of erotic love and desire. She is often represented as a beautiful woman with butterfly wings.
Psyche is known from the ancient Roman proto-novel The Golden Ass (also known as the Metamorphoses), written by philosopher and orator Apuleius in the 2nd century. In the story, Psyche violates the trust of her new husband, Cupid, and must endure multiple trials at the hand of his mother, Venus, to win him back. At the conclusion of her trials, the couple is reconciled and married, and Psyche is made immortal. Though The Golden Ass is the only known version of Psyche's story from antiquity, the cultural influences of the narrative are depicted in art dating back to the 4th century BCE.
Name
Psyche (Ψυχή) has Greek origins, and is commonly translated as "soul," "life," and "spirit." Homer's usage of the word is often translated as "ghost" (psukhê) and is used to refer to the departed souls that Odysseus meets in the Odyssey. It can also be translated as "butterfly" or "moth" (psukhai). Its relationship with the word psȳ́chein ("to blow," "to breathe," "life-breath") is disputed, and it is unknown if psyche is a derivative. The story follows its protagonist, Lucius, who is accidentally transformed into a donkey after experimenting with magic. Along his journey, he is told multiple stories, one of which is the Cupid and Psyche episode, spanning Books 4–6. While the exact origin of this story is unclear, it was likely borrowed from a folktale or now-lost work. Scholars have proposed that the story itself may be of Italian, Greek, North African (specifically Berber), or Iranian origin. Potential sources and inspirations have been named as Lucian, Lucius of Patrae, or another unknown author.
Mythology
thumb|Psyche with butterfly wings mounted on a camel, marble relief at the [[Louvre Museum|Louvre]]
In an unnamed kingdom, a king and queen had three daughters. While all three were beautiful, the youngest, Psyche, possessed a supernatural beauty. As word of her appearance began to spread, huge numbers of people began to arrive in the city to look upon her; some even began to worship her as the goddess Venus or a new earthly version of her. Worshippers began to neglect Venus' temples, offerings, and rites, opting to visit Psyche instead. The goddess was enraged that a mortal was being worshipped over her, and decided to take revenge upon the girl. Venus called upon her son, Cupid, god of desire. Cupid could make anyone fall in love with the prick of his arrow, and she instructed him to shoot Psyche and make her fall in love with a hideous and impoverished man.
Relationship with Cupid
However, Psyche felt miserable and isolated due to her beauty, and was still unmarried even though her less beautiful sisters had already made advantageous marriages. Psyche's father decided to consult the oracle of Apollo at Miletus, and received a prophesy that Psyche would marry a non-mortal and terrible serpentine monster that even Jupiter would fear and that no men nor god can resist, and that she was to be placed on the top of the mountain in funeral attire to carry out the ceremony. Terrified, Psyche's father obeyed, and she was abandoned on the mountaintop. Zephyrus, the western wind, picked her up and brought her to a meadow in the valley below to meet her new spouse.thumb|left|[[Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss, marble sculpture by Antonio Canova]]When Psyche explores her surroundings, she finds and enters a beautifully crafted home with bejeweled mosaic floors, carved citron-wood and ivory ceilings supported by gold columns, and silver walls embossed with depictions of animals. A disembodied voice suddenly speaks and informs her that all the treasures in the home are hers, and that she will be cared for by invisible attendants. She is treated to a feast that serves itself and is entertained by an invisible choir and lyre player. That night, when she went to bed, her husband finally arrived. However, he did not greet her. Instead, he took her virginity and left before sunrise without letting her see him.
thumb|The Abduction of Psyche, painting by [[Émile Signol]]When her sisters arrived, Psyche treated them to the same luxuries she enjoyed when she first arrived. They were amazed by the splendor, and began to envy their sister's position. They asked questions about her husband, and she claimed that he was a young man who spent most of his time hunting and farming. After the sisters left, their envy began to transform to rage; they believed that their sister was undeserving of such a luxurious life, ones that they themselves had been denied in their loveless marriages. They resolved to punish her. However, Cupid was aware of their plots and once again warned Psyche that they would try to persuade her to look upon his face, and told her that if she divulged his secret, their child would be born mortal, but if she did not, he would be born as divine. At their third visit, her sisters reminded Psyche of the oracle's words, and convinced her that Cupid was likely a monster that would eventually destroy her.
Psyche, although doubtful, was eventually swayed by her sisters' words and looked upon Cupid while he was sleeping. As Psyche shone the light on her husband's face, she realized that he was a god and reprimanded herself for her foolishness. However, as she shifted, a small drop of hot oil fell onto Cupid' shoulder, awakening him. Betrayed by his wife's actions, Cupid took off in flight to take refuge at his mother's house and treat his wound. When Venus discovered that her son had taken Psyche as a lover, she was enraged and vowed to take revenge on her once more.
When Psyche arrived at Venus' home, she was met by the goddess' handmaid, Habit, who seized her by the hair and dragged her in front of the goddess. Venus was ecstatic, and called her handmaids Care and Sorrow to beat and torture Psyche, after which Venus began to beat Psyche herself, tearing off her clothes and threatening to kill her unborn child. After this, Venus told Psyche that, if she wanted to earn the trust of her son again, then she would need to become her slave and prove her merit by completing impossible tasks.
Golden fleece
When Venus awoke the next morning, she gave Psyche a new task. She showed the girl a forest and a winding river where rams with golden fleece grazed, and instructed her to retrieve some of their wool. Psyche obeyed, and made her way to the river where she secretly planned to drown herself and end her suffering. However, as she was standing on the riverbank, a divine voice spoke to her from a reed and told her not to go through with her plans. It then informed her that she needed to wait until after the heat of the day passed to retrieve the fleece, as the rams would be enraged by the heat, but would calm down as the weather cooled. Once they were more docile, she could then go to the forest and retrieve some of the wool that had got caught on the branches. Psyche obeyed the voice, and was able to collect a heap of wool to present to the goddess. One of Jupiter's eagles spotted Psyche and took pity; he took the cup from the girl and collected some of the River's waters for her, thus successfully completing the third task. Psyche, believing that this task was impossible, once again decided to take her own life. She climbed a tall tower and prepared to jump, but the tower spoke and instructed Psyche to go to the border of Sparta where she could find a passageway to the underworld. It then instructed her to carry with her two barley cakes soaked with honey and wine, and place two coins in her mouth; the cakes would be fed to Cerberus so that she could pass by without harm, and the coins would be used to pay for Charon's ferry. It also warned her not to engage with any of the spirits that she may meet, nor open the box under any circumstances. Psyche followed his orders, and upon arriving, Proserpina welcomed Psyche and willingly filled the box with her beauty. However, instead of beauty, the box contained a black cloud that put her into a deep sleep. Afterward, Psyche and Cupid were married and a large celebration and feast commenced. Later, Psyche bore a daughter: Voluptas, the personification of pleasure.
Gnostic narrative
Psyche is featured in the creation myth found in the ancient Gnostic text known as On the Origin of the World. Here she appears as a lover of Eros who pours her blood upon him and also upon the Earth, which causes the first rose to grow from a thorn bush.
References in art and literature
thumb|240px|Relief of Psyche on a sarcophagus lid from [[Tyre, Lebanon.]]
Literature
- Love in Color by Bolu Babalola is a collection of works that features a story about Psyche and Eros.
- The Fable Of The Goddess Psyche And Cupid by Lucius Apuleius, translated by T. Taylor (2023).
- Till We Have Faces by C.S. Lewis is not focused on Psyche but instead her sister Orual, giving a different view point of Psyche in myth.
- Cupid: A Tale of Love and Desire by Julius Lester is centered around Cupid in this romantic, light retelling.
- "The Earthly Paradise" by William Morris is an 1868 poem retelling the story of Psyche and Cupid and other myths.
- "Ode to Psyche", a 1819 poem by John Keats, in which the narrator shares his plans to resurrect Psyche.
- Psyche In A Dress by Francesca Lia Block was published in 2006 as a contemporary retelling of the Psyche myth in poetic prose.
Paintings, sculptures, and engravings
- The Wedding Feast of Cupid and Psyche painting by Raphael, 1517.