Post-Soviet states

[[File:USSR Republics numbered by alphabet.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|Post-Soviet states

]]

The post-Soviet states, also referred to as the former Soviet Union or the former Soviet republics, are the independent sovereign states that emerged/re-emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Prior to their independence, they existed as Union Republics, which were the top-level constituents of the Soviet Union. There are 15 post-Soviet states in total: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. Each of these countries succeeded their respective Union Republics: the Armenian SSR, the Azerbaijan SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, the Estonian SSR, the Georgian SSR, the Kazakh SSR, the Kirghiz SSR, the Latvian SSR, the Lithuanian SSR, the Moldavian SSR, the Russian SFSR, the Tajik SSR, the Turkmen SSR, the Ukrainian SSR, and the Uzbek SSR. In Russia, the term "near abroad" () is sometimes used to refer to the post-Soviet states other than Russia. In a broader sense, post-Soviet states may include all countries of the former Eastern Bloc.

The Union Republics of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) were the first to break away from the Soviet Union by proclaiming the restoration of their national independence in 1990; they cited legal continuity from the original Baltic states, asserting that Baltic sovereignty had continued on a basis due to the belligerent nature of the 1940 Soviet annexation. Subsequently, the 12 remaining Union Republics seceded, with all of them jointly establishing the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and most of them later joining the Russian-led Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO). On the other hand, the three Baltic states pursued a policy of near-total disengagement with the Russian-dominated post-Soviet sphere, instead focusing on integrating themselves with the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). They successfully attained NATO membership and were granted EU membership in 2004. Since the 2000s, many EU officials have stressed the importance of establishing EU Association Agreements with the other post-Soviet states. Ukraine and Georgia have actively sought NATO membership due to increasingly hostile Russian interference in their internal affairs.

Due to the post-Soviet conflicts, several disputed states with varying degrees of international recognition have emerged within the territory of the former Soviet Union. These include: Transnistria, an unrecognized Russian-backed state in eastern Moldova; and Abkhazia and South Ossetia, two partially recognized Russian-backed states in northern Georgia. The United Nations (UN) has historically considered Russian-backed states in the "near abroad" to be illegitimate and instead views them as constituting Russian-occupied territories. The aftermath of Ukraine's Maidan Revolution saw the emergence of Russian-backed states in Ukraine in 2014: the Republic of Crimea in southern Ukraine briefly proclaimed independence before being annexed by Russia in 2014; and the Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic, both located in Ukraine's Donbas, were occupied and subsequently declared independence in 2014 before being formally annexed by Russia in 2022, amidst the broader Russian invasion of Ukraine.

Name

In the political language of Russia and some other post-Soviet states, the term near abroad () refers to the independent republics that emerged after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Increasing usage of the term in English is connected to assertions of Russia's right to maintain significant influence in the region. The concept has been compared to the Monroe Doctrine, central to American grand strategy in the 20th century.

The present definition restricts the notion of post-Soviet states to the 15 former republics of the Soviet Union (USSR). A broader definition includes also all the formerly communist-bloc countries in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE countries), Asia, and Latin America.

Country comparison

The 15 sovereign post-Soviet states are usually divided into five subregions.

(Eastern Europe and Northern Asia)
Baltics: , ,
Eastern Europe: , ,
South Caucasus: , ,
Central Asia: , , , ,

There are three additional de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition. (read below: Post-Soviet conflicts)

{|class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:right" width=100%

!colspan=2 rowspan=2|Country

!colspan=2|Symbols

!rowspan=2|Capital

!rowspan=2|Form of government

!rowspan=2|Independence from USSR

!rowspan=2|HDI (2025)

!rowspan=2 style="width: 40px;"|Area

!rowspan=2|Population (2025)

!rowspan=2|Currency replacing SUR or RUR

!Coat of arms

!Flag

|colspan=2 align=center|Republic of Armenia

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Yerevan

|align=center|Unitary parliamentary republic

|align=center|

|align=center|0.811

|3,081,100

|align=left|Armenian dram (AMD)

|colspan=2 align=center|Republic of Azerbaijan

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Baku

|align=center|Unitary semi-presidential republic under a hereditary dictatorship

|align=center|18 October 1991

|align=center|0.789

|10,241,722

|align=left|Azerbaijani manat (AZM, AZN)

|colspan=2 align=center|Republic of Belarus

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Minsk

|align=center|Unitary presidential republic under a dictatorship

|align=center|25 August 1991

|align=center|0.824

|9,109,280

|align=left|Belarusian ruble (BYB, BYR, BYN)

|colspan=2 align=center|Republic of Estonia

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Tallinn

|align=center|Unitary parliamentary republic

|align=center|8 May 1990

|align=center|0.905

|1,369,995

|align=left|Estonian kroon (EEK), Euro (EUR)

|rowspan=3 style="background:#FF0000" |

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Georgia

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|65x65px

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Tbilisi

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Unitary parliamentary republic

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|9 April 1991

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|0.844

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" |'

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" |3,704,500

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=left|Georgian kuponi (GEK), Georgian lari (GEL)

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Republic of Abkhazia

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|60x60px

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Sukhumi

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Partially recognised Unitary presidential republic. Internationally recognised as part of

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|23 July 1992

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|N/A

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c"|'

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c"|244,000

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=left|Russian ruble (RUR, RUB)

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Republic of South Ossetia

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|60x60px

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Tskhinvali

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Partially recognised Unitary semi-presidential republic. Internationally recognised as part of

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|29 May 1992

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|N/A

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c"|'

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c"|56,520

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=left|Russian ruble (RUR, RUB)

|colspan=2 align=center|Republic of Kazakhstan

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Unitary dominant-party presidential republic

|align=center|16 December 1991

|align=center|0.837

|20,426,568

|align=left|Kazakhstani tenge (KZT)

|colspan=2 align=center|Kyrgyz Republic

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Bishkek

|align=center|Unitary presidential republic

|align=center|31 August 1991

|align=center|0.720

|7,281,800

|align=left|Kyrgyz som (KGS)

|colspan=2 align=center|Republic of Latvia

|align=center|75x75px

|align=center|

|align=center|Riga

|align=center|Unitary parliamentary republic

|align=center|4 May 1990

|align=center|0.889

|1,829,400

|align=left|Latvian ruble (LVR), Latvian lats (LVL), Euro (EUR)

|colspan=2 align=center|Republic of Lithuania

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Vilnius

|align=center|Unitary semi-presidential republic

|align=center|11 March 1990

|align=center|0.895

|2,894,548

|align=left|Lithuanian talonas (LTT), Lithuanian litas (LTL), Euro (EUR)

|rowspan=2 style="background:#0046AE" |

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Republic of Moldova

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|60x60px

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Chișinău

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Unitary parliamentary republic

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|27 August 1991

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|0.785

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" |'

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" |2,381,300

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=left|Moldovan leu (MDL)

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|60x60px

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|75x75px

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Tiraspol

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|Unrecognised Unitary semi-presidential republic. Internationally recognised as part of

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|2 September 1990

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=center|N/A

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c"|'

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c"|367,776

|style="background:#ececec; color:#2c2c2c" align=left|Transnistrian ruble (-)

|colspan=2 align=center|Russian Federation

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Moscow

|align=center|Federal semi-presidential republic under a dictatorship

|align=center|12 December 1991

|align=center|0.832

|146,028,325

|align=left|Russian ruble (RUR, RUB)

|colspan=2 align=center|Republic of Tajikistan

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Dushanbe

|align=center|Unitary presidential republic under a dictatorship

|align=center|9 September 1991

|align=center|0.691

|10,499,000

|align=left|Tajikistani ruble (TJR), Tajikistani somoni (TJS)

|colspan=2 align=center|Turkmenistan

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Ashgabat

|align=center|Unitary presidential republic under a hereditary dictatorship

|align=center|27 October 1991

|align=center|0.764

|7,057,841

|align=left|Turkmenistani manat (TMM, TMT)

|colspan=2 align=center|Ukraine

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Kyiv

|align=center|Unitary semi-presidential republic under martial law since 2022

|align=center|24 August 1991

|align=center|0.779

|32,862,000

|align=left|Ukrainian karbovanets (UAK), Ukrainian hryvnia (UAH)

|colspan=2 align=center|Republic of Uzbekistan

|align=center|60x60px

|align=center|

|align=center|Tashkent

|align=center|Unitary presidential republic under a dictatorship

|align=center|1 September 1991

|align=center|0.740

|37,859,698

|align=left|Uzbekistani sum (UZS)

|- style="background:#c8ccd1;"

|colspan=2 align=center|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

|align=center|65x65px

|align=center|

|align=center|Moscow

|align=center|Federal communist state

|align=center|26 December 1991

|align=center|0.920

|296,295,373

|align=left|Soviet ruble (SUR)

</div>

Current leaders

Heads of state

File:Vahagn Khachaturyan portrait (cropped).jpg| Armenia Vahagn Khachaturyan President of Armenia

File:Ilham Aliyev in 2023.jpg| Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev President of Azerbaijan

File:Lukashenko (October 2019) (cropped).jpg| Belarus Alexander Lukashenko President of Belarus

File:Volodymyr Zelenskyy met with Estonian President Karis in Kyiv 2022 (13) (cropped).jpg| Estonia Alar Karis President of Estonia

File:Mikheil Kavelashvili 2014.jpg| Georgia Mikheil Kavelashvili President of Georgia

File:Kassym-Jomart Tokayev (2022-06-17) (cropped).jpg| Kazakhstan Kassym-Jomart Tokayev President of Kazakhstan

File:President of Kyrgyzstan Sadyr Japarov.jpg| Kyrgyzstan Sadyr Japarov President of Kyrgyzstan

File:Edgars Rinkēvičs as president-elect, 2023-05-31 (cropped).jpg| Latvia Edgars Rinkēvičs President of Latvia

File:Gitanas Nausėda in Lviv (cropped).jpg| Lithuania Gitanas Nausėda President of Lithuania

File:Meeting of the President of Ukraine with the President of the Republic of Moldova in Kyiv (23) (cropped).jpg| Moldova Maia Sandu President of Moldova

File:Владимир Путин (08-09-2022) 2.png| Russia Vladimir Putin President of Russia

File:Emomali Rahmon in 2016 (cropped).jpg| Tajikistan Emomali Rahmon President of Tajikistan

File:Vladimir Putin and Serdar Berdimuhamedow (2022-06-10) 02 (cropped).jpg| Turkmenistan Serdar Berdimuhamedow President of Turkmenistan

File:For every act of terrorism by Russian troops on the territory of Ukraine there will be an international tribunal - address by President Volodymyr Zelenskyy. (51940800012) (cropped).jpg| Ukraine Volodymyr Zelenskyy President of Ukraine

File:Shavkat Mirziyoyev.jpg| Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev President of Uzbekistan

</gallery>

Heads of government

File:Nikol Pashinyan 01 (07-04-2021).jpg| Armenia Nikol Pashinyan Prime Minister of Armenia

File:Али Асадов (25-08-2022).jpg| Azerbaijan Ali Asadov Prime Minister of Azerbaijan

File:Aliaksandr Turčyn.png| Belarus Alexander Turchin Prime Minister of Belarus

File:Kristen Michal in 2024 (cropped).jpg| Estonia Kristen Michal Prime Minister of Estonia

File:Irakli Kobakhidze and Volodymyr Groysman 01 cropped.jpg| Georgia Irakli Kobakhidze Prime Minister of Georgia

File:Oljas Bektenov (2024-02-06, cropped).jpg| Kazakhstan Oljas Bektenov Prime Minister of Kazakhstan

File:Adylbek Kasymaliev (2024-14-05).jpg| Kyrgyzstan Adylbek Kasymaliev Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers of Kyrgyzstan

File:Jaunievēlētās Ministru prezidentes Evikas Siliņas preses konference (cropped).jpg| Latvia Evika Siliņa Prime Minister of Latvia

File:Inga Ruginienė 1025 (cropped).jpeg| Lithuania Inga Ruginienė Prime Minister of Lithuania

File:Alexandru Munteanu official portrait.jpg| Moldova Alexandru Munteanu Prime Minister of Moldova

File:Mikhail Mishustin (2020-07-09).jpg| Russia Mikhail Mishustin Prime Minister of Russia

File:Kokhir Rasulzoda (2018-04-19).jpg| Tajikistan Kokhir Rasulzoda Prime Minister of Tajikistan

File:Vladimir Putin and Serdar Berdimuhamedow (2022-06-10) 02 (cropped).jpg| Turkmenistan Serdar Berdimuhamedow President of Turkmenistan This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the United States suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934. The reconfiguration of public finance in compliance with capitalist principles resulted in dramatically reduced spending on health, education and other social programs, leading to a sharp increase in poverty and economic inequality. The economic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in the excess deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s. A study by economist Steven Rosefielde asserts that 3.4 million Russians died premature deaths from 1990 to 1998, partly as the result of the shock therapy policies imposed by the Washington Consensus.

The initial transition decline was eventually arrested, and after 1995 the economy in the post-Soviet states began to recover, with GDP switching from negative to positive growth rates. By 2007, 10 of the 15 post-Soviet states had recovered their 1991 GDP levels. According to economist Branko Milanović, in 2015 many former Soviet republics and other former communist countries still have not caught up to their 1991 levels of output, including Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Ukraine. He concluded that "only 1 out of 10 people living in 'transition' countries have seen a successful transition to capitalism and more democracy." Commenting on Milanović's report in 2021, Kristen Ghodsee says this view is "essentially correct" and perhaps underestimates "the negative impacts of transition by focusing only on GDP, inequality and democratic consolidation" whereas Mitchell A. Orenstein says this view is "overly pessimistic" and notes that "Poland had done spectacularly well and living standards had increased in many countries."

Most of the new states' constitutions define directly or indirectly the economic system of the countries parallel to the democratic transition of the 1990s, emphasising the free market economy. The average government debt in these countries is nearly 44%, but the deviation is great, because the lowest figure is close to 10% but the highest is 97%. The trend shows that the sovereign debt-to-GDP ratio in most of the countries has been rising. The constitutional background for taxation is similar. Central banks are often independent state institutions, which possess the monopoly on managing and implementing a state's or federation's monetary policy. Besides monetary policy, some of them also perform the supervision of the financial intermediary system. As of 2025, the Post-Soviet states have a combined GDP of about $3.36 trillion (2025 USD), which is about 3% of the world total, with Russia making up about $2.2 trillion of that total.

Change in gross domestic product (GDP) in constant prices, 1991–2015

{| class="wikitable sortable"

|Central Asia|| || || || || || || ||

| Kazakhstan||100 || 69.3 || 88.5 || 141.4 ||185.7 || 219.0 || 252.3 || 261.1 || 1996

| Kyrgyzstan||100 || 58.9 || 76.1 || 89.6 ||114.4 || 133.9 || 154.5 || 169.6 || 1996

| Tajikistan||100 || 34.1 || 45.2 || 56.0 ||98.1 || 124.5 || 189.5 || 205.0 || 1997

| Turkmenistan||100 || 70.7 || 86.0 ||117.2 ||199.2 || 285.5 || 367.9 || 374.2 || 1998

| Uzbekistan||100 || 82.9 || 102.6 || 137.5 ||208.4 || 281.2 || 363.6 || 387.5 || 1996

|Eastern Europe|| || || || || || || ||

| Belarus||100 || 67.9 || 94.0 || 141.5 ||192.5 || 193.9 || 206.0 || 196.7 || 1996

| Moldova||100 || 45.2 || 45.0 || 62.5 ||74.5 || 83.2 || 104.6 || 98.4 || 1997

| Russia||100 || 63.1 || 74.5 || 103.3 ||118.3 || 119.8 || 135.2 || 133.3 || 1997

| Ukraine||100 || 47.2 || 51.8 || 73.7 ||75.9 || 63.4 || 68.8 || 48.6 || 2000

|Baltic states|| || || || || || || ||

| Estonia***||? || 105.0 || 143.9 || 212.3 || 203.2 || 222.3 || 281.9 || 278.2 || ?

| Latvia||100 || 67.8 || 92.9 || 143.1 ||130.1 || 145.8 || 165.3 || 171.7 || 1993

| Lithuania||100 || 64.6 || 81.5 || 119.8 ||123.9 || 139.6 || 173.2 || 180.0 || 1995

|South Caucasus|| || || || || || || ||

| Armenia||100 || 63.3 || 84.2 || 154.7 ||172.5 || 202.6 || 244.2 || 276.0 || 1994

| Azerbaijan||100 || 42.7 || 65.2 || 150.2 ||241.1 || 276.5 || 269.6 || 282.1 || 1996

| Georgia||100 || 39.8 || 49.8 || 74.1 ||93.2 || 109.3 || 136.0 || 150.3 || 1995

<nowiki>*</nowiki>Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989–1990, thus indices for 1991 do not match pre-reform maximums.

<nowiki>**</nowiki>The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth

<nowiki>***</nowiki>World bank publishes GDP data for Estonia only from 1995 onwards. Figures for Estonia are relative to 1995 GDP.

List of the present gross domestic product (GDP) (figures are given in 2025 USD for the year 2025 according to the IMF)

{| class="wikitable sortable"

! Country

! Nominal (millions USD)

! Nominal per capita (USD)

! PPP (millions USD)

! PPP per capita (USD)

|Post-Soviet States

|3,250,134

|10,880

|10,703,395

|35,830

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 26,258

| 8,857

| 74,294

| 25,060

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 78,870

| 7,604

| 272,100

| 26,235

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 71,561

| 7,875

| 311,791

| 34,313

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 45,004

| 34,041

| 68,235

| 49,671

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 35,353

| 9,571

| 113,583

| 30,749

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 300,538

| 14,768

| 904,496

| 44,446

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 19,849

| 2,747

| 63,455

| 8,781

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 45,535

| 25,630

| 83,251

| 44,563

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 89,192

| 32,982

| 165,442

| 57,196

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 19,462

| 8,260

| 46,365

| 19,678

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 2,076,396

| 14,258

| 7,191,718

| 49,383

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 14,836

| 1,432

| 62,656

| 6,048

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 89,054

| 13,337

| 186,106

| 27,873

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 205,742

| 6,261

| 690,059

| 20,999

|- style="height: 25px;"

| align="left" |

| 132,484

| 3,514

| 469,844

| 12,462

Demographics

Demographics of Armenia
Demographics of Azerbaijan
Demographics of Belarus
Demographics of Estonia
Demographics of Georgia
Demographics of Kazakhstan
Demographics of Kyrgyzstan
Demographics of Latvia
Demographics of Lithuania
Demographics of Moldova
Demographics of Russia
Demographics of Tajikistan
Demographics of Turkmenistan
Demographics of Ukraine
Demographics of Uzbekistan

== Regional organizations ==

upright=0.9|thumb|

A number of regional organizations and cooperating blocs have sprung up since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Only organizations that are mainly (or completely) composed of post-Soviet states are listed in this section; organizations with wider memberships are not discussed. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided in their participation to the regional blocs:

Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine founded the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in December 1991. Conceived as a successor organization to the USSR, it included 12 of the 15 former Soviet republics (all except the three Baltic states) by December 1993. It now has nine members and one associate state (Turkmenistan). Georgia withdrew from the CIS in August 2008, while Ukraine stopped participating in May 2018. Although it was one of the founding countries of the CIS, Ukraine was never legally a member because it didn't ratify the 1993 CIS Charter. and a member in the Economic Cooperation Organization; it has not sought closer integration through any of the other Western or post-Soviet organizations.
In 2008, Georgia notified the CIS executive bodies of its decision to leave the regional organization, and this decision came into force 12 months after the notification date, in accordance with the CIS Charter (sec. 1, art. 9).

Commonwealth of Independent States

The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) consists of 10 former Soviet Republics that differ in their membership statuses. As of December 2024, 9 countries have ratified the CIS charter and are full CIS members (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan), one country is an associate member (Turkmenistan), and one country left the organization (Georgia in 2009). Ukraine is a founding state of the CIS, but never became a full member state since it never ratified the CIS Charter. In 2014, Ukraine had declined its CIS chairmanship and considered withdrawal from the organization.

In 1994, the CIS countries agreed to create a free trade area, but the agreements were never signed. In 2011, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, and Ukraine signed a free trade agreement. Uzbekistan joined the free trade area in 2013.

Eurasian Economic Community

upright=0.9|thumb|

The Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC), formerly the CIS Customs Union, was established by Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. Ukraine and Moldova had observer status in the community; however, Ukraine declared its desire not to become a full member state. Because having common borders with the rest of the community was a prerequisite for full membership, Moldova was barred from seeking it. Uzbekistan joined in 2006 during the process of merging with the Central Asian Cooperation Organization but suspended its membership in 2008.

On 10 October 2014, after a session of the Interstate Council of the Eurasian Economic Community in Minsk, member states signed an agreement to terminate the organization which took effect 1 January 2015 with the launch of the Eurasian Economic Union.

Customs Union of the Eurasian Economic Union

thumb|right|upright=2.05|Economical integration [[trade bloc|blocs in Post-Soviet area: EU, EFTA, CEFTA and Customs Union of the Eurasian Economic Union]]

Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan created a customs union that entered into force in July 2010. Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan indicated interest in joining at the time. Russia has been eager for Armenia, Moldova, and Ukraine to join the custom union instead of the European Union, and the Moldovan break-away state of Transnistria has supported this. In 2013, Kyrgyzstan and Armenia announced plans to seek membership, but division over the issue in Ukraine led to the Revolution of Dignity after the Ukrainian government backed out of an EU Eastern Partnership in favor of the union. In 2014, voters in the Moldovan autonomous region of Gagauzia rejected closer ties to the EU in favor of the union.

On 1 January 2012, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Belarus established the Single Economic Space to ensure the effective functioning of a single market for goods, services, capital, and labour, and to establish coherent industrial, transport, energy, and agricultural policies. The agreement included a roadmap for future integration and established the Eurasian Economic Commission (modelled on the European Commission). The Eurasian Economic Commission serves as the regulatory agency for the Eurasian Customs Union, the Single Economic Space, and the Eurasian Economic Union. Treaties aiming for Armenia's and Kyrgyzstan's accession to the Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October 2014 and 23 December respectively. Armenia's accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015. Kyrgyzstan ratified its accession's treaty in May 2015, and it came into force in August 2015. Moldova and Tajikistan are prospective members.

Collective Security Treaty Organization

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Seven CIS member states, namely Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia, have enhanced their military cooperation, establishing the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), this being an expansion of the previous Collective Security Treaty (CST). Uzbekistan which (alongside Georgia and Azerbaijan) withdrew from the CST in 1999, joined GUAM. Then in 2005, it withdrew from GUAM and joined the CSTO in 2006. On 28 June 2012, Uzbekistan suspended its membership in the CSTO.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

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Three former Soviet states are members of NATO: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Georgia, where both public opinion and the ruling government favor NATO membership, is in the Intensified Dialogue program with NATO. Ukraine also declared joining NATO as its geopolitical goal once again in 2017 (the first time being right after the Orange Revolution and in the beginning of presidency of Viktor Yushchenko), after the presidency of Viktor Yanukovych, during which the government officially declared non-alignment status and ceased to seek NATO membership.

Other states in the Partnership for Peace and Individual Partnership Action Plan program include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

GUAM

Four member states, Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova, established the GUAM group that was largely seen as intending to counter Russian dominance in the region. Notably, these four nations do not participate in any of the other regional organizations that sprang up in the region since the dissolution of the Soviet Union (other than the CIS).

Union State

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The Union State of Russia and Belarus was originally formed on 2 April 1996 under the name Commonwealth of Russia and Belarus before being tightened further on 8 December 1999. It was initiated by the president of Belarus, Alexander Lukashenko. On paper, the Union of Russia and Belarus intends further integration, beyond the scope of mere cooperation, including the introduction of the rouble as a common currency.

Other regional organizations

Economic Cooperation Organization

[[File:ECO CDC Map.png|upright=0.9|right|thumb|

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The Economic Cooperation Organization was originally formed in 1985 by Turkey, Iran and Pakistan but in 1992 the organization was expanded to include Afghanistan and the six primarily Muslim former Soviet republics: Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations

The post-Soviet disputed states of Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Transnistria are all members of the Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations which aims to forge closer integration.

Community of Democratic Choice

The Community of Democratic Choice (CDC) was formed in December 2005 at the primary instigation of Ukraine and Georgia, and composed of six post-Soviet states (Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and three other countries of Eastern and Central Europe (Slovenia, Romania and North Macedonia). The Black Sea Forum (BSF) is a closely related organization. Observer countries include Armenia, Bulgaria and Poland.

Just like GUAM before it, this forum is largely seen as intending to counteract Russian influence in the area. This is the only international forum centered in the post-Soviet space in which the Baltic countries also participate. In addition, the other three post-Soviet states in it are all members of GUAM.

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

[[File:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organization_(orthographic_projection).svg|upright=0.9|right|thumb|Shanghai Cooperation Organisation:

]]

Six post-Soviet states are members of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), namely Belarus, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The organization was founded in 2001, though its predecessor, the Shanghai Five grouping, has existed since 1996. Its aims revolve around security-related issues such as border

demarcation, terrorism and energy.

Economic cooperation organizations

Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA) with Moldova (it includes also non post-Soviet countries of the former Yugoslavia; previously, also included other Central European countries that left CEFTA when joining the European Union; CEFTA plays a role in Central Europe similar to what European Free Trade Association (EFTA) provides in Western Europe for non EU-members; this alliance an economical organization with strong cooperation with the European Union, for countries that do not want to participate in EurAsEC centered on Russia but that are seeking alliances to the West); even if Moldova is the only CEFTA country that is still within a weakening CIS, it no longer participates to the CSTO for most of the common security policy (but cannot join the EU because of incompatibility with WEU stability rules and the unsolved problem of Transnistria) but can still benefit from the Free Trade Area notably with Romania and Bulgaria (in the EU).
Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) with Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Turkey, Albania, Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Armenia (an economic organisation closely related to the SCO but more focused regionally to include also Armenia; it also aims for the harmonious development of democracy for increasing the commerce in South-East Europe and includes some EU members, so it cannot be a regional free-trade union).
The European Union (EU) with the three Baltic countries that were the first ones to declare independence from the former USSR have never joined CIS after the collapse of USSR (it includes also now some post-communist countries in Central Europe, that have left CEFTA when entering the EU : Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Slovenia).

Political integration and security alliances

Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe (SPforSEE) with Moldova (similar in structure to CEFTA, but does not focus on economy but security, for those countries that are not NATO members); this organization largely cooperates with NATO, and is related to the group of observers at Western European Union (WEU).
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), for Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Central European countries that have also joined the EU (the EU membership includes also WEU membership because they follow the Common Foreign and Security Policy and European Security and Defence Policy policies shared now by the EU, the WEU and all European NATO members).
The other remaining countries are those part of the former Yugoslavia, but their recent conflict and political tensions still does not allow them to cooperate efficiently for their political integration and for their mutual security; in addition, they still do not have full sovereignty in this domain (some of them are still under surveillance by EU or NATO, as mandated by UNO). They still need to find an internal stability and they can collaborate economically with the help of other organizations focusing on economy or political cooperation and development. However, a more limited cooperation for security is possible through their membership to the larger Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
The only exception is Belarus (whose post-soviet democratic transition did not occur) that still rejects political integration, and all security alliances with NATO, OSCE, WEU or other countries in Europe other than Russia (which the process of reintegration of Belarus has been tightened in almost all domains).

Organizations in other domains

Southeast European Cooperation Process (SEECP) with Moldova (similar to SPforSEE, but focuses on political integration than cooperation for security, and to CEFTA but does not focus on trade).
Southeast European Cooperative Initiative (SECI) with Moldova (closely related to SEECP).
Central European Initiative (CEI) with Moldova, Ukraine and Belarus (and also Central and South-Western European countries in the European Union; it aims at helping Eastern European countries to reach the EU standards and cooperate politically and find a better economic development and a strong, working but more democratic legal system); it is the only regional organization where Belarus is still a member (but the political cooperation with Belarus is almost stalled, as it is the only country of the former Communist bloc country that balances in favor of stronger cooperation with Russia and against integration with EU and NATO; however, Belarus remains isolated and still does not cooperate too in the SCO group led by Russia and China).
Black Sea Forum for Partnership and Dialogue (BSF) with Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, Moldova and Armenia (also non post-soviet countries that are NATO members, interested in their maintaining political stability and avoiding conflicts in the region: Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey, whose first two are also now EU and CEI members, using EU rules for their political development); however, this organization does not focus on helping countries to join the EU, but reaching common standards and good governance and internal stability and democracy like in the CEI.
Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations

Other organizations

Apart from above, the former Soviet republics also hold membership in a number of multinational organizations such as:

FIBA
FIFA
International Ice Hockey Federation
International Olympic Committee
International Paralympic Committee
Kontinental Hockey League (Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia)
UNESCO
World Health Organization
World Trade Organization

Politics

Regarding political freedom in the former Soviet republics, Freedom House's 2021 report listed the following:

Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania as "free" countries.
Armenia, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine were listed as "partly free".
Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan were listed as "not free".

Similarly, the Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders in 2025 recorded the following as regards press freedom:

Estonia – "Good situation"
Armenia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova – "Satisfactory situation"
Ukraine – "Problematic situation"
Georgia – "Difficult situation"
Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan – "Very serious situation"

It has been remarked that several post-Soviet states did not change leadership for decades since their independence, such as Nursultan Nazarbayev in Kazakhstan until his surprise resignation in 2019, and Islam Karimov in Uzbekistan, until his death in September 2016. All of these had originally more limited terms but through decrees or referendums prolonged their stay in office (a practice also followed by Presidents Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus and Emomali Rahmon of Tajikistan). Askar Akayev of Kyrgyzstan had likewise served as President since its independence until he was forced to resign as a result of the Kyrgyz revolution of 2005. Saparmurat Niyazov in Turkmenistan ruled from independence until his death in 2006, creating a personality cult around himself. His successor, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov, has maintained a personality cult of his own that has replaced the worshipping of Niyazov.

The issue of dynastical succession has been another element affecting the politics of some post-Soviet States. Heydar Aliyev, after constructing an extensive and ongoing cult of personality, handed the Presidency of Azerbaijan to his son, Ilham Aliyev. Theories about the children of other leaders in Central Asia being groomed for succession abound. The participation of Akayev's son and daughter in the 2005 Kyrgyz parliamentary elections boosted fears of dynastic succession being used in Kyrgyzstan as well, and may have contributed to the anti-Akayev climate that led to his overthrow.

Post-Soviet conflicts

Economic, political, national, military and social problems have all been factors in separatism in the post-Soviet space. In many cases, problems due to factors such as ethnic divisions existed before the fall of the Soviet Union, and upon the fall of the union were brought into the open. Such territories and resulting military conflicts have so far been:

Current self-declared states

, which is de facto independent from Moldova. It declared independence in 1990, due to its majority Russian-speaking population fearing union with Romania. A ceasefire between Transnistrian forces and Moldovan forces has been in place since 1992, enforced by the presence of Russian forces in Transnistria.
, which is de facto independent from Georgia. The region declared its intent to seek independence in 1990, leading to a conflict which led to a ceasefire in 1992. Separatism became powerful after the election of Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili in 2004, and a referendum in 2006 was in favour of declaring independence. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of South Ossetia's independence.
, which is de facto independent from Georgia. Tensions in the area broke out when Georgia sent in troops in 1992 to control groups who wanted separation. The troops and most of the Georgian and Mingrelian speaking population were forced out in 1993, and the region declared independence in 1999. The 2008 war between Georgian forces and the separatist and Russian forces led to Russia's recognition of Abkhazia's independence.

Former self-declared states

Gagauz Republic, declared itself the "Gagauz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic" within Moldova on 12 November 1989, and the Gagauz Republic, separate from Moldova but still within the Soviet Union, on 19 August 1990; reintegrated into Moldova as an autonomous region through a law passed on 23 December 1994 which entered into force on 14 January 1995.
, declared itself to be a sovereign state after a referendum on 21 March 1992. Negotiations with Russia led to the signing of a treaty in 1994 which ended Tatarstan's de facto independence, but reserved significant autonomy for the Tatarstan government. In 2002 a new constitution was enacted for Tatarstan which removed the prior constitution's declaration that Tatarstan was a sovereign state.
. The entire Crimean Peninsula has been outside the control of Ukrainian authorities since late February 2014, when Russian special forces, some disguised as "armed self-defence forces" occupied the peninsula and seized the local parliament. In March 2014, a popular referendum in favor of accession to Russia was held in Crimea and Sevastopol, although Ukraine and most of the international community refused to recognize the vote. The next day, the Republic of Crimea declared independence, and within days Russia absorbed the peninsula. Ukraine continues to claim Crimea as an integral part of its territory.
, where Dzhokhar Dudayev declared independence from Russia in 1991, leading to a violent war between local separatist forces and the Russian army. Russia first invaded in 1994, withdrawing after a deal for increased autonomy was granted in 1996. Tensions have continued in the years since then, and the conflict has spilled over into neighbouring regions such as Dagestan, Ingushetia and North Ossetia–Alania. The break away region was disestablished in 2000 after the Second Chechen War with Chechnya rejoining the Russian Federation.
and , states which declared independence from Ukraine in 2014. The two breakaway states were recognized by Russia on 21 February 2022, followed by North Korea and Syria, and they were subsequently annexed by Russia on 4 October of that year after a controversial referendum that were recognized as sham referendums.
, which declared independence from the Soviet Union. Ethnic conflict between Armenians and Azerbaijanis began in 1988, and expanded into a war which lasted until a ceasefire in 1994. Sporadic attempts at negotiating a final peace and sporadic bursts of violence have continued up until September 2023 when Azerbaijan launched another military offensive. The government of Artsakh agreed to disarm and enter talks with Azerbaijan, prompting a flight of ethnic Armenians from the area. The president of Artsakh also signed a decree calling for the republic to dissolve itself by 1 January 2024.
Kurdish Republic of Lachin, proclaimed in 1992 during First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Territory later taken over by Artsakh forces.
Talysh-Mughan, declared autonomy within Azerbaijan, that lasted from June to August 1993.

Civil wars

Civil wars unrelated to separatist movements have occurred twice in the region:

The Georgian Civil War between the forces of Zviad Gamsakhurdia and Eduard Shevardnadze. The war ended after Russian forces intervened in support of Shevardnadze's government, which in turn agreed to join the Commonwealth of Independent States.
The Tajikistani Civil War that lasted between 1992 and 1997.

Colour revolutions

Since 2003, a number of (largely) peaceful "colour revolutions" have happened in some post-Soviet states after disputed elections, with popular protests bringing into power the former opposition.

The Rose Revolution in Georgia, leading to the resignation of Eduard Shevardnadze
The Orange Revolution in Ukraine, bringing into power Viktor Yushchenko and toppling the pro-Russian leader Viktor Yanukovych
The Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, leading to the resignation of Askar Akayev
The Velvet Revolution in Armenia, leading to the resignation of Serzh Sargsyan

Russian population in post-Soviet states

There is a significant Russophone population in most of the post-Soviet states, whose political position as an ethnic minority varies from country to country. While Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, in addition to Russia, have kept Russian as an official language, the language lost its status in other post-Soviet states after the end of the Soviet Union. It maintains semi-official status in all CIS member states, because it is the organisation's official working language, but in the three Baltic states, the Russian language is not recognized in any official capacity. Georgia, since its departure from the CIS in 2009, has begun operating its government almost exclusively in the Georgian language.

Religion

While the Soviet system placed severe restrictions on religious intellectual life, traditions continued to survive. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Islamic movements have emerged alongside ethnic and secular ones. Vitaly Naumkin gives the following assessment: "Throughout the time of change, Islam has served as a symbol of identity, a force for mobilization, and a pressure for democracy. This is one of the few social disasters that the church has survived, in which it was not the cause. But if successful politically, it faces economic challenges beyond its grasp."

The Central Asian states (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) plus Azerbaijan in the Southern Caucasus are Muslim, except for their dwindling Russian and other European minorities. The Baltic countries are historically Western Christian (Protestant and Roman Catholic), which adds another layer of pro-Western orientation to those countries, although the majority of what has been the traditionally Protestant population there (in Estonia and northern Latvia) is now relatively irreligious. The dominant religion in the other former Soviet countries (Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine) is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, while Armenia is Apostolic Christian.

LGBTQ rights

LGBT people may encounter difficulties not shared by non-LGBT residents. In Transnistria homosexuality is illegal. In some other regions, such as Russia and Ukraine, homosexual actions are legal, but there is still discrimination and bias towards the gay community. In June 2023, Estonia became the first former Soviet state to legalize same-sex marriage and joint adoption for gay couples.

Environment

The Soviet Union inherited environmental problems from the pre-Revolutionary era that it blamed on the failings and evils of capitalism. Some environmental strides were made, such as the banning of lead-based paint and leaded gasoline in the 20th century. The Northern countries of Central Europe, including Poland, East Germany and Czechoslovakia formed what is referred to as the "black triangle" due to their heavy use of brown coal for energy. Many republics of the Soviet Union experienced soil degradation due to collective farming There was a push away from coal and towards cleaner forms of energy in the 1980s, Industrial activity drastically decreased, which reduced air pollution even as the economy took an upturn. Environmental clean-up efforts by post-Soviet regimes included institutional changes through the creation of or reformation of environmental agencies, and legislative changes through the introduction of new environmental regulations and their enforcement. Rather, some republics had state and local institutions for environmental oversight where citizens could voice concerns, but open criticism of the state was prohibited. engaged in preservationist and recreational outdoor activities. However, environmental problems arose in Russia under the Soviets because industrialization was favored over environmentalism, and there was little discussion on how to properly use resources and they were depreciated. Ukraine heavily increased industrial and agricultural production in the Soviet period, which had negative effects on the environment, as did the 1986 Chernobyl disaster. Central Asia has an arid climate with hot summers and cold winters. For this reason, they were reliant on Russian oil, and did not have the capacity to acquire fuel from other producers, which had led to frequent fuel shortages. Under the USSR, forest and other natural resources were state-owned and centrally managed.

A 2009 Pew Research Center poll showed that 62% of Ukrainians felt that their lives were worse off after 1989, when free markets were made dominant. A follow-up poll by Pew Research Center in 2011 showed that 45% of Lithuanians, 42% of Russians, and 34% of Ukrainians approved of the change to a post-Soviet market economy.

According to July 2012 polling in Ukraine by RATING, 42% of respondents supported the formation of a unified state of Ukraine, Russia and Belarus; earlier in 2012 this support had been 48%.

Polls of Russian citizens conducted by Levada Center in November 2016, 2017, and 2018 showed that a majority viewed the collapse of the USSR negatively (56%, 58%, and 66% respectively) and felt that it could have been avoided (51%, 52%, and 60% respectively). The 2018 figure of 66% who regretted the USSR's collapse was the highest since 2004. A 2019 poll found that 59% of Russians felt that the Soviet government "took care of ordinary people". Joseph Stalin's favorability also hit record highs that same year.

Characteristics of regionalization

[[File:PostSoviet Regions Map.png|upright=1.15|thumb|right|Regional categorization of post-Soviet states:

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Various regional structures have emerged in the post-Soviet geography, which is fragmented in political and geopolitical terms. The first of these was the Independent State Society (CIS), which included former Soviet countries outside the Baltic countries. The failure of the CIS to meet the foreign policy needs of many post-Soviet countries has set the stage for a new regional integration. At the initiative of Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova, a GUAM organization was established in Strasbourg on 10 October 1997. The purpose and principles of the organization were determined at the first summit of GUAM on 7 June 2001 in Yalta. The countries participating in the GUAM aimed to maintain their national independence and sovereignty and to increase their maneuverability against Russia.

References

External links

Candid photos of the Eastern Bloc September–December 1991, in the last months of the USSR
New Directions Post-Independence from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Post-Soviet Russia and its Neighbor States from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
Discovering The Centuries-Old State Tradition, professor Pål Kolstø, University of Oslo
Former Soviet war zones – The hazards of a long, hard freeze, The Economist, 19 August 2004
4 enclaves' post-Soviet fate in limbo, The Seattle Times, 20 August 2006
Are Independence Referendums First Step Toward Kremlin's 'Historical Revanchism'?, Radio Free Europe, 15 September 2006

Post-Soviet states

Name

Country comparison

Current leaders

Heads of state

Heads of government

Demographics

Commonwealth of Independent States

Eurasian Economic Community

Customs Union of the Eurasian Economic Union

Collective Security Treaty Organization

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

GUAM

Union State

Other regional organizations

Economic Cooperation Organization

Community for Democracy and Rights of Nations

Community of Democratic Choice

Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

Economic cooperation organizations

Political integration and security alliances

Organizations in other domains

Other organizations

Politics

Post-Soviet conflicts

Current self-declared states

Former self-declared states

Civil wars

Colour revolutions

Russian population in post-Soviet states

Religion

LGBTQ rights

Environment

Characteristics of regionalization

See also

References

Further reading

External links