Pomo

The Pomo are a Native American people of California. Historical Pomo territory in Northern California was large, bordered by the Pacific Coast to the west, extending inland to Clear Lake, mainly between Cleone and Duncans Point. One small group, the Tceefoka (Northeastern Pomo), lived in the vicinity of present-day Stonyford, Colusa County, where they were separated from the majority of Pomo lands by Yuki and Wintuan speakers.

The name Pomo derives from a conflation of the Pomo words and . It originally meant "those who live at red earth hole" and was once the name of a village in southern Potter Valley, near the present-day community of Pomo, Mendocino County. The word may also have referred to the local deposits of red magnesite (mined and utilized for making red beads) or to the reddish, earthen clay soil of the area, rich in hematite (also mined for use). In the Northern Pomo dialect, -pomo or -poma was used as a suffix after the names of places, to mean a subgroup of people of the place. By 1877, the meaning of the word Pomo had been broadened, at least in the English language, to refer to not only the Pomo language but the entire group of people speaking it, as well—the people known as Pomo, today.

History

thumb|Map of the historical distribution of the [[Pomoan languages with neighboring groups indicated]]

The people called Pomo were originally linked by location, language, and cultural expression. They were not socially or politically linked as a unified group. Instead, they lived in small groups or bands linked by lineage and marriage.

Precontact

According to certain linguistic hypotheses, the Pomo descend from Hokan-speaking peoples; per this theory, a Hokan-speaking people migrated into the upland valley regions near Clear Lake ca. 7000 BCE, where their language evolved into Proto-Pomoan. Another theory places the Pomoan ancestral community in the Sonoma region,

Traditional narratives

The record of Pomo myths, legends, tales, and histories is extensive. The body of narratives is classed within the Central California cultural pattern.

Ethnobotany

Carex roots are used to make baskets, and used to tend fishing traps. They are also used to make torches.

Basket weaving tradition

Pomo baskets made by Pomo Indian women of Northern California are recognized worldwide for their exquisite appearance, range of technique, fineness of weave, and diversity of form and use. While women mostly made baskets for cooking, storing food, and religious ceremonies, Pomo men also made baskets for fishing weirs, bird traps, and baby baskets.

thumbnail|left|Girl's Coiled Dowry or Puberty Basket (kol-chu or ti-ri-bu-ku), late 19th century, [[Brooklyn Museum]]

Making the baskets required great skill and knowledge in collecting and preparing the needed materials. Materials for weaving baskets changed with the seasons and years. The Pomo usually covered a basket completely with the vivid red feathers of the pileated woodpecker until the surface resembled the smoothness of the bird itself. With the feathers, 30–50 to every inch, beads were fastened to the basket's border and hung pendants of polished abalone shell from the basket itself. Pomo women sometimes spent months or years making such gift baskets.

The materials used to make the baskets—including, but not limited to, swamp canes, saguaro cactuses, rye grass, black ash, willow shoots, sedge roots, the bark of redbud, the root of bulrush, and the root of the gray pine—were harvested annually. After being picked, the materials are dried, cleaned, split, soaked, and dyed. Sometimes the materials are also boiled over a fire and set in the sun to dry.

Women traditionally wove Pomo baskets with great care and technique. The three different techniques of Pomo basket weaving are plaiting, coiling, and twining. One drying method was wrapping maiden fern in blue clay and placing underground for several days. This prevented fading in the sun or when cooking mush.

There are many different designs that are woven into the baskets that signify different cultural meanings. For example, the Dau is a pattern woven into a basket by creating a small change in the stitching to create a small opening between two stitches. The Dau is the design that is also called the Spirit Door. This Spirit Door allows good spirits to come and circulate inside of the basket while the good or bad spirits are released.

thumb|Pomo basket on display, ca.1900

Although baskets were made for decorating homes and as gifts, they were centrally used in Pomo daily life as well. Basket weaving is considered sacred to the Pomo tribe and baskets were produced for a variety of purposes. Pomo children were cradled in baskets, acorns (a major food staple to the Pomo) were harvested in great conical burden baskets, and food was stored, cooked, and served in baskets—some even being watertight. There were even "baskets" that were made as boats to be pushed by men to carry women across rivers.

Post-contact

A commercial market for authentic baskets developed in the latter part of the 19th century, lasting from about 1876 to the 1930s. Two Pomo people who capitalized on this market were William Ralganal Benson and his wife, Mary Knight Benson and the Bensons may have been the first California Indians who supported themselves solely by crafting and selling their baskets to collectors and museums.

Even though most of their original land was taken over, this was the first turning point for the Pomo people. They had finally escaped the harsh road they were once a part of, and even though they had to settle on poor, isolated land, they finally got to make a stride towards tradition and basket weaving. From 1852 to 1878, many Pomo Indians tried to rekindle their cultures and find peace to what had happened to them. Many people let this time be a learning and spiritual time, where they could have visions and see what the future would have in store. It was a time to build, a time to connect, a time of hope, and a time of change.

thumb|left|Pomo basket (collected in 1905) in the [[Ethnological Museum of Berlin]]

The Pomo Indians did not have enough money to buy land. The Pomo men decided to work for ranchers and the woman went back to making baskets. The "white" people loved the baskets, especially the designer, feathered ones, which led to a basketry movement. Finally, in 1878, the Pomo Indians bought their first piece of land in California. Paula Giese noted, "In 1878, a group of Northern Pomo people bought 7 acres in Coyote Valley. In 1880, another Northern Pomo group bought 100 acres along Ackerman Creek (now known as Pinoleville)". In 1881, Yokaya Rancheria was financed by central Pomo people. Once the Pomo Indians had bought the land, it was time to make money.

Baskets were in so much demand at this point, even though they were once used for trade and bartering with other tribes and people, they now became the Pomo people's way to make money and build their newly found empires. Women had preserved Pomo basket weaving traditions, which made a huge change for the Pomo people. The baskets were wanted all over California; it was a piece of art that traders wanted. Grandmothers and daughters taught other Pomo women, who had lost the tradition of basket weaving, how to make the all-powerful baskets.

Within this time period in addition to basket weaving, the Pomo also manufactured elaborate jewelry made from abalone and clamshells. Assembled during the winter, during the summer the Pomo would travel from various sites along the coast where they would fish and gather all of their materials needed to create their jewelry. The Pomo Indians would create stunning, beautiful, and intricate forms of jewelry that were worn during celebrations and rituals, and even given as gifts. Both of these traditions of creation and culture have slowly dispersed and have become less common over the history of the tribe but more evident in today's culture.

Basket weaving today

thumb|[[Fully feathered basket curated at the Jesse Peter Multicultural Museum, Santa Rosa College]]Pomo basket weaving is still valued and honored today, not only by the Pomo Indians themselves, but also by amateur enthusiasts, buyers for curio dealers, and scientific collectors. The Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria are a federally recognized American Indian tribe of Coast Miwok and Southern Pomo Indians. During the past 30 years, the appreciation for American Indian art has been on the rise, and the art has become in demand – specifically Pomo Indian basketry. Dr. Joallyn Archambault, director of the American Indian Program at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History says: "Since the 1880s, when Pomo baskets first became sought after, the Pomo have changed their lifestyles enormously." Despite these changes, Pomo basket weavers are still heralded and praised within the community for their artistic ability and skill.

One of those basket weavers is Julia F. Parker. She is a master weaver, having woven under Lucy Telles. Her childhood was rough, constantly moving around until boarding school after her parents' death at 6. Lucy had taught Julia because of her perceived interest in preserving Indian culture and specifically basketry. Julia Parker became a cultural demonstrator after Lucy Telles died in 1956. She continued in her studies and later studied Pomo basketry with Pomo master weaver Elsie Allen (1899–1990) at Ukiah and several others. Julia belongs to the Miwok Pomo and Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria. Many of her baskets are in museums in Yosemite, Mono Lake and other museums; she even presented her baskets to Queen Elizabeth II.

They wove baskets from sedge root, willow shoots and roots, bulrush or blackroot, redbud shoots, and sometimes bracken fern and a variety of colorful bird feathers, abalone and other types of shells, or magnesite beads and sometimes glass beads. Redbud shoots, used for the darker reddish colors in basket designs are gathered in October. Good redbud is hard to obtain around Ukiah, so it is usually found at Clear Lake. All these materials are gathered with a thankful heart and the gatherers talk continuously to the plants. They were, after all, living things that were giving themselves for something useful and beautiful. In order to preserve the soil and creek banks, sedge gathering was done with care. The commonly held decision would be leaving behind about half of what was found. Dyeing of the bulrush root takes about three to six months in a concoction of black walnuts, rusty metal and ashes in water.

Dealing of these baskets has not always been lucrative and many have tried to exploit the artists and communities, but it still paid to provide income to Pomo women where hunting and gathering were no longer feasible and money was needed for survival.

Baskets are rarely sold for the previously mentioned prices. Due to the time required for preparation and weaving, weavers often have more requests than they can fulfill, leading to wait times of several months. The labor requirements and limited availability contribute to their market value. Demand from collectors exceeds the current supply of these baskets.

Villages and communities

Federally recognized tribes

thumb|A Pomo roundhouse today

Today, federally recognized tribes have sovereignty and relations with the United States federal government. Classified as "domestic dependent nations," these tribes are under the jurisdiction of the federal government, but with some autonomy from their respective states, including California.

Federally recognized Pomo tribes are based in Sonoma, Lake, and Mendocino counties. They include the following tribes:

Big Valley Band of Pomo Indians of the Big Valley Rancheria
Cloverdale Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
Coyote Valley Band of Pomo Indians of California
Dry Creek Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
Elem Indian Colony of Pomo Indians of the Sulphur Bank Rancheria
Federated Indians of Graton Rancheria (a tribe of Coast Miwok and Southern Pomo)
Guidiville Rancheria of California
Habematolel Pomo of Upper Lake
Hopland Band of Pomo Indians of the Hopland Rancheria
Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Point Rancheria
Koi Nation of the Lower Lake Rancheria
Lytton Rancheria of California
Manchester Band of Pomo Indians of the Manchester Rancheria
Middletown Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
Pinoleville Pomo Nation
Potter Valley Tribe
Redwood Valley Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
Robinson Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California
Round Valley Indian Tribes of the Round Valley Reservation (a confederation of several tribes, including Pomo)
Scotts Valley Band of Pomo Indians of California
Sherwood Valley Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California

Other self-identified Native American groups are not federally recognized.

California Rancheria Termination Acts

Many Pomo were impacted by the California Rancheria Termination Acts and lost lands due to lack of understanding the tax system, along with predation by merchants who took advantage of land-rich but cash-poor tribal members. Along with losing their lands, the tribes lost their status as federally recognized tribes and the ability to access federal clinics that served other federally recognized tribes. In a decision dated July 19, 1983 the United States District Court for the Northern District of California restored the status of 17 California rancherias in Hardwick v. United States.

Historical groups

The Pomo people were traditionally divided into several large groupings, each speaking its own language. While these had no overarching governance structure and villages were politically independent, they had some cultural differences and were recognizable as units to those who lived in them:

Kashia (Southwestern Pomo)
Southern Pomo
Central Pomo
Northern Pomo
Tceefoka (Northeastern or Salt Pomo)
Eastern Pomo (Clear Lake Pomo), spoke Bahtssal
Elem Pomo (Southeastern Pomo)

The following historical list of Pomo villages and tribes is taken largely from John Wesley Powell, 1891:

Balló Kaì Pomo, "Oat Valley People"(Potter Valley, Mendocino County)
Batemdikáyi
Búldam Pomo (Rio Grande or Big River)
Chawishek
Choam Chadila Pomo (Capello)
Chwachamajù
Dápishul Pomo (Redwood Canyon)
Eastern People (Clear Lake about Lakeport)
Erío (mouth of Russian River)
Erússi (Fort Ross)
Gallinoméro (better Kainameah, Kianamaras or Licatiuts) (Russian River Valley below Cloverdale and in Dry Creek Valley)
Gualála (better Ahkhawalalee) (northwest corner of Sonoma County)
Kabinapek (western part of Clear Lake basin)
Kaimé (above Healdsburg)
Kai Pomo (between Eel River and South Fork)
Kastel Pomo (between Eel River and South Fork)
Kato Pomo, "Lake People" (Clear Lake)
Komácho (Anderson and Rancheria Valleys)
Kulá Kai Pomo (Sherwood Valley)
Kulanapo (Clear Lake)
Láma (Russian River Valley)
Misálamag[-u]n or Musakak[-u]n (above Healdsburg)
Mitoám Kai Pomo, "Wooded Valley People" (Little Lake)
Poam Pomo
Senel (Russian River Valley)
Shódo Kaí Pomo (Coyote Valley)
Síako (Russian River Valley)
Sokóa (Russian River Valley)
Yokáya (or Ukiah) Pomo, "Lower Valley People" (Ukiah City)
Yusâl (or Kámalel) Pomo, "Ocean People" (on coast and along Usal Creek)

Non-Pomo villages and tribes considered "Pomo" in Powell, 1891:

Batemdikayi (name of a Cahto/Kato Athabaskan band)
Kai Pomo ('grass people', the Cahto/Kato Athabaskan band of Long Valley)
Kamalel Pomo ('ocean people', Coast Yuki people, possibly also the Sinkyone Athabaskan people of Usal Creek area)
Kastel Pomo (Wailaki Athabaskan bands, possibly including some of the northern Cahto bands)
Kato Pomo ('lake people', the Cahto/Kato Athabaskan band of Cahto Valley)
Yusal Pomo ('Usal people', the Sinkyone Athabaskan people of Usal Creek area)

Notable Pomo people

William Ralganal Benson (1862–1937)
Mary Knight Benson (1877–1930)
Elmer Busch (1890–1949)
Laura Somersal (1892–1990), basket weaver
Elsie Allen (1899–1990)
Essie Pinola Parrish (1903–1979)
Mabel McKay (1907–1993)
Julia F. Parker (born 1928)
Luwana Quitiquit (1941–2010), basket weaver who created a program to revive the craft
Susan Billy (born 1951), basket weaver
Chuck Billy (born 1962), singer of the metal band Testament
Danielle Forward, software engineer and Indigenous activist
Franklin Dollar, physicist

Notes

References

Books, reports

Catalog of an exhibition held at the Grace Hudson Museum in 1993 and the Oakland Museum of California in 1996.

Journal articles, book chapters, encyclopedia entries

Magazine & newspaper articles, web sources

External links

Gold, Greed & Genocide: The Pomo & The Paiute
Pomo Bear Doctors, by S.A. Barrett, 1917
Brief summary regarding Pomo baskets as part of a virtual tour for the National Museum of the American Indian exhibit All Roads Are Good. .