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Portugal is a unitary multi-party semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the prime minister is the head of government, and the president is the non-executive head of state which, although it is a somewhat ceremonial figure, has some significant political powers they exercise often. Executive power is exercised by the government, whose leader is the prime minister. Legislative power is primarily vested in the Assembly of the Republic (the Portuguese parliament), although the government is also able to legislate on certain matters. The Judiciary of Portugal is independent of the executive and the legislature. The President exerts a sort of "moderating power", not easily classified into any of the traditional three branches of government. while the 2026 V-Dem Democracy Indices ranked Portugal as the 23rd most electoral democratic country in the world, but, for the first time, put the country on the V-Dem's Watchlist of countries very close to becoming autocratizers.
Political background
The national and regional governments are dominated by two political parties, the centre-left Socialist Party (PS), a social-democratic party, and the centre-right, liberal-conservative Social Democratic Party (PSD), which have similar basic policies in some respects: both are pro-European, support NATO membership and the welfare state. Other parties with seats in parliament are Chega, the Portuguese Communist Party, the Left Bloc, LIVRE, the Liberal Initiative and People-Animals-Nature. The Communists and the Ecologist Party "The Greens" run in a coalition as the Unitary Democratic Coalition.
In the Portuguese legislative election of 2011, the PSD won enough seats to form a majority government with the Christian democratic People's Party (CDS-PP). The coalition, led by Prime Minister Pedro Passos Coelho, was supported by a majority in the Parliament, with 132 of the 230 MPs. The major opposition party was the Socialist Party (the party of the former prime minister José Sócrates, in office 2005–2011) with 74 MPs. Also represented were the Portuguese Communist Party (14 MPs), "The Greens" (2 MPs) and the Left Bloc (8 MPs), all to the left of the governing coalition.
In the 2015 elections, which the PSD and CDS-PP contested as a coalition, Portugal Ahead, the government lost its absolute majority. The left-wing parties, the Socialist Party, Portuguese Communist Party, Ecologist Party "The Greens", and Left Bloc, argued that as they were willing to form a coalition which would have a majority in the assembly, they ought to be invited to form the government, while Portugal Ahead, as the largest grouping, argued that they should be invited to form the government. After three weeks of uncertainty, the President designated Passos Coelho as prime minister, which was followed by the formation of a minority government. However, the plan was rejected by the Parliament. It was the shortest-lived Portuguese national government since the Carnation Revolution. After that, the left-wing parties supported a minority government led by the Socialist Party (PS). António Costa's first government was formed on 26 November 2015.
In the Portuguese legislative of 2019, the centre-left PS of incumbent Prime Minister Costa obtained the largest share of the vote, and the most seats. On 26 October 2019, there was established a new PS minority government led by Prime Minister António Costa. In the snap 2022 election the ruling PS won an outright majority. Following the Operation Influencer police searches, in November 2023, António Costa resigned and snap elections were called for 10 March 2024, which were won by the Democratic Alliance.
History
The first constitution was created in 1822 (following the Liberal Revolution of 1820), followed by a second in 1826, followed by a third in 1838 (after the Liberal Wars), a fourth in 1911 (following the 5 October 1910 revolution),
3rd, 4th and 5th Constitutional Governments (1978–1980)
President Eanes then nominated the 3rd Constitutional Government, under the leadership of Alfredo Nobre da Costa, which was sworn in on late August 1978, but lasted just three months as it failed to gain Parliamentary support.
The 4th Constitutional Government, under the leadership of Carlos Mota Pinto, was sworn in on late November 1978, but, like the previous government, lasted very little, eight months, due to its failure to pass policies in Parliament.
The president then swore in the 5th Constitutional Government, under the leadership of Maria de Lourdes Pintasilgo, the first and still only female prime minister in Portuguese history. The government managed the country until the early elections of December 1979.
6th, 7th, 8th Constitutional Governments (1980–1983)
thumb|Francisco Pinto Balsemão with [[Dries van Agt in 1982]]
The Democratic Alliance, under the leadership of Francisco Sá Carneiro, won the 1979 legislative elections by a big margin and the 6th Constitutional Government was sworn in in January 1980. Sá Carneiro's tenure was short lived as he died in a plane crash in December 1980.
In January 1981, the Social Democratic Party, the main party within the Democratic Alliance, elected Francisco Pinto Balsemão as leader and the 7th Constitutional Government was sworn in. Internal issues within the Alliance forced a new government to take office, the VIII Constitutional Government, in September 1981, also led by Pinto Balsemão. Balsemão resigned in late 1982.
9th Constitutional Government (1983–1985)
The Socialist Party, under the leadership of Mário Soares, returned to power after the 1983 legislative election and formed a Central Bloc government, the 9th Constitutional Government, between the two main parties, the Socialists and the Social Democrats. Soares resigned in June 1985 after the Social Democrats withdrew from government.
10th, 11th, 12th Constitutional Governments (1985–1995)
thumb|Aníbal Cavaco Silva with [[Ronald Reagan in 1988]]
The Social Democratic Party, under the leadership of Aníbal Cavaco Silva, rose to power after the 1985 legislative elections and formed a minority government. However, the government lost the confidence of Parliament in April 1987 after losing a non-confidence vote. After this, President Mário Soares called an early election for July 1987.
The 1987 early elections were held on 19 July and resulted in a landslide majority government for the Social Democrats, the first time a party won a majority on its own in democracy. The XI Constitutional Government, the first one to finish a full 4-year term in democracy, was sworn in on 17 August 1987. During this term, the PSD government initiated a big program of liberalization and privatization of several sectors of the economy.
In the 1991 election the Social Democrats were returned again to power and, also, with an absolute majority. It was the third consecutive election victory for the PSD, a record in democracy. The XII Constitutional Government was sworn in on 31 October 1991. After 1992, the economy fell into a recession and despite the recession being over by mid 1994, the government was badly hit and Cavaco Silva decided to not run for a fourth term as prime minister. Cavaco Silva's 10-year tenure as prime minister is the longest, so far, in democracy.
13th and 14th Constitutional Governments (1995–2002)
The Socialist Party, under the leadership of António Guterres, came to power following the October 1995 legislative elections. The Socialists later won a new mandate by winning exactly half the parliamentary seats in the October 1999 election, and constituting then the 14th Constitutional Government. Socialist Jorge Sampaio won the February 1996 presidential elections with nearly 54% of the vote. Sampaio's election marked the first time since the 1974 revolution that a single party held the prime ministership, the presidency, and a plurality of the municipalities. Local elections were held in December 1997.
Prime Minister Guterres continued the privatization and modernization policies initiated by his predecessor, Aníbal Cavaco Silva (in office 1985–1995) of the Social Democratic Party. Guterres was a vigorous proponent of the effort to include Portugal in the first round of countries to collaborate and put into effect the euro in 1999. In international relations, Guterres pursued strong ties with the United States and greater Portuguese integration with the European Union while continuing to raise Portugal's profile through an activist foreign policy. One of his first decisions as prime minister was to send 900 troops to participate in the IFOR peacekeeping mission in Bosnia. Portugal later contributed 320 troops to SFOR, the follow-up Bosnia operation. Portugal also contributed aircraft and personnel to NATO's Operation Allied Force in Kosovo. Guterres resigned in December 2001 after a disappointing result in the local elections.
15th Constitutional Government (2002–2004)
thumb|José Manuel Durão Barroso in 2004
Following the results of the 2002 early election, the 15th Constitutional Government, led by José Manuel Durão Barroso, leader of the Social Democratic Party, in coalition with the People's Party, whose leader, Paulo Portas, became minister of defence, was sworn in in April 2002. This government lasted two years because, in June 2004, Durão Barroso announced his resignation to become president of the European Commission.
16th Constitutional Government (2004–2005)
After José Manuel Durão Barroso accepted the invitation to be the next European Commission President, a new government had to be formed. Though opposition parties called for general elections, President Jorge Sampaio named Pedro Santana Lopes, the new Social Democratic Party leader, as prime minister, who thus formed a new government, in coalition with the People's Party. However, in December 2004, due to several controversies involving the government, the President dissolved the parliament and called for early elections. Santana Lopes resigned after the announcement of the President's decision.
17th and 18th Constitutional Governments (2005–2011)
thumb|left|José Sócrates in 2006
In the elections on 20 February, the Socialist Party obtained its largest victory ever, achieving an absolute majority for the first time in the party's history. José Sócrates was sworn in by President Jorge Sampaio on 12 March. To many's surprise, Sócrates formed a cabinet made up of roughly half senior members of the Socialist Party and half independents, notably including Diogo Freitas do Amaral, founder of the right wing People's Party, who assumed office as Ministry of Foreign Affairs (he later resigned due to personal issues).
In the elections on 27 September 2009, The Socialist Party, led by incumbent Prime Minister José Sócrates, won the largest number of seats, but did not repeat the overall majority they gained in 2005. Sócrates was reconducted but lost his majority. The 2010 European debt crisis led Portugal to ask for a bailout from the IMF and the European Union. This situation led to the resignation of José Sócrates as prime minister and the President dissolved parliament and called an early election for June 2011.
19th and 20th Constitutional Governments (2011–2015)
thumb|Pedro Passos Coelho in 2012
In the elections held on 5 June 2011, the Social Democratic Party won enough seats to form a majority government with the People's Party. The government was led by Pedro Passos Coelho. It had 11 ministers and was sworn in on 21 June.
The Portuguese legislative election of 2015 was held on 4 October. The results display a relative victory of the right-wing coalition, but they also display a combined victory of the left-wing parties (including the Socialist Party), with a hung parliament (a right-wing single winner and a left-wing majority parliament). After the election, the 20th Constitutional Government had Pedro Passos Coelho as the prime minister and lasted from 30 October 2015 to 26 November 2015. However, the government's budget was rejected by the parliament. It was the shortest-lived Portuguese national government since the Carnation Revolution.
21st, 22nd, 23rd Constitutional Governments (2015–2024)
thumb|António Costa in 2017
The 21st cabinet of the Portuguese government since the establishment of the current constitution. It was established on 26 November 2015 as a Socialist Party (PS) minority government led by António Costa.
The election of 2019 was held on 6 October 2019. The centre-left PS of incumbent prime minister Costa obtained the largest share of the vote, and the most seats. The 22nd Constitutional Government was sworn in on 26 October 2019 as a PS minority government led by António Costa. In October 2021, the budget proposed by the government was rejected by parliament, leading president Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa to call an early election for January 2022.
The 2022 early elections were held on 30 January 2022. The election resulted in an absolute majority for the PS, the second in its history. However, the government swearing in was postponed because of a rerun in the overseas constituency of Europe, and the 23rd Constitutitional Government, led by António Costa, was only sworn in on 30 March 2022. António Costa resigned on 7 November 2023, following the Operation Influencer police searches into government contracts surrounding lithium and hydrogen businesses. The president dissolved parliament and called early elections.
24th and 25th Constitutional Governments (2024–)
In the early elections held on 10 March 2024, the Democratic Alliance (AD), an alliance between the Social Democratic Party (PSD), People's Party (CDS–PP) and the People's Monarchist Party (PPM), won enough seats to form a minority government. The 24th Constitutional Government led by Luís Montenegro had 17 ministers and was sworn in on 2 April 2024.
The government fell after losing a vote of confidence in March 2025, and the President dissolved Parliament and called an early election for 18 May 2025. The AD coalition won again, with a stronger mandate albeit still a minority, with the 25th Constitutional Government taking the oath of office on 5 June 2025.
Political powers
Government in Portugal is made up of three branches originally envisioned by enlightenment philosopher Baron de Montesquieu: executive, legislative, and judicial. Each branch is separate and is designed to keep checks and balances on the others. The President's powers, however, do not fall into either of the traditional three, forming instead a sort of "moderating power" over the government and the legislature.
- The President of the Assembly of the Republic
- The Prime Minister of Portugal
- The President of the Constitutional Court of Portugal
- The Ombudsman of Portugal
- Both Presidents of the regional governments of the autonomous regions (Madeira and Azores)
- Former Presidents of the Republic
- Five citizens appointed by the President of the Republic
- Five citizens appointed by the Assembly of the Republic
The president, according to the election results, names the party that shall form a government, whose leader is appointed prime minister. The prime minister names the Council of Ministers, and the ministers name their Secretaries of State. A new government is required to define the broad outline of its policy in a program and present it to the assembly for a mandatory period of debate. Failure of the assembly to reject the program by a majority of deputies confirms the government in office.
Presidential elections
Legislative branch
thumb|São Bento Palace, the meeting place of Parliament.
Legislative power is exercised by the Assembly of the Republic, which is the parliament of Portugal, although the Government also has a more limited ability to legislate on some matters (on others, Parliament has exclusive legislative competence). It is also the body which holds the Government accountable and has the means to remove it from office at any time, as described earlier, primarily through a motion of no confidence, although alternative methods exist.
Executive branch
thumb|São Bento Mansion, the official residence and office of the Prime Minister.
Executive power is exercised by the Government of Portugal. The Government is formed after the President appoints the prime minister based on election results, as described earlier – traditionally, the leader of the most voted party.
The Government can only remain in place for as long as the Parliament allows: the Parliament can remove the Government at the beginning by approving a motion of rejection to the introductory Government programme, or at any time by approving a motion of no confidence, either of which is achieved by a simple majority; the Government may also, of its own initiative, choose to present at any time a motion of confidence, which acts as the opposite of a motion of no confidence: if rejected, the Government is removed. Finally, the Government also relies on Parliament to approve the state budget, which also allows Parliament to indirectly force the Government to resign by rejecting its budget proposal. Thus, the Government, although not directly elected, is held accountable before Parliament, which is proportionally representative of the people.
{| class="wikitable"
!Office
! colspan="2" |Minister
! colspan="2" |Party
!Start of term
!End of term
|-
|Prime Minister
| align=center | 120x120px
|Luís Montenegro
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of State and of Foreign Affairs
| align=center |120x120px
|Paulo Rangel
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of State and of Finance
| align=center |120x120px
|Joaquim Miranda Sarmento
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of the Presidency
| align=center |120x120px
|António Leitão Amaro
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of Economy and for Territorial Cohesion
|
| Manuel Castro Almeida
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister Adjunct and for State Reform
| align="center" | 120x120px
|Gonçalo Saraiva Matias
| style="background:" |
|Independent
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of Parliamentary Affairs
|
| Carlos Abreu Amorim
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of National Defence
| align=center |120x120px
|Nuno Melo
| style="background:" |
|CDS–PP
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of Infrastructure and Housing
| align=center |120x120px
|Miguel Pinto Luz
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of Justice
|
|Rita Júdice
| style="background:" |
|Independent
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|rowspan="3"| Minister of Internal Administration
| align="center" | 120x120px
|Maria Lúcia Amaral
| style="background:" |
|Independent
|5 June 2025
|10 February 2026
|-
| bgcolor=#E6E6AA colspan=6 |
|-
|align=center |120x120px
|Luís Neves
| style="background:" |
|Independent
|23 February 2026
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of Education, Science and Innovation
| 120x120px
|Fernando Alexandre
| style="background:" |
|Independent
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of Health
|120x120px
|Ana Paula Martins
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of Labour, Solidarity and Social Security
|
|Maria do Rosário Palma Ramalho
| style="background:" |
|Independent
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of the Environment and Energy
| align=center |120x120px
|Maria da Graça Carvalho
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of Culture, Youth and Sports
| align=center |120x120px
|Margarida Balseiro Lopes
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|-
|Minister of Agriculture and Sea
| align=center |120x120px
|José Manuel Fernandes
| style="background:" |
|PSD
|5 June 2025
|Incumbent
|}
Judicial branch
The national Supreme Court is the court of last appeal in civil and criminal matters, which is described by the Constitution as "the senior organ in the hierarchy of the courts of law". There is a separate system of courts for administrative and fiscal matters, for which the court of last appeal is the Supreme Administrative Court. During war time, the law provides for there being military courts.
A thirteen-member Constitutional Court reviews the constitutionality of legislation. There is also a Court of Auditors, which is the highest institution for the oversight and control of public funds and assets.
Administrative divisions
There are two autonomous regions (regiões autónomas, singular região autónoma) with limited legislative powers besides the administrative ones: Azores and Madeira.
As purely administrative divisions, there are 18 districts (distritos), 308 municipalities (municípios) and 3,259 civil parishes (freguesias).
The districts are Aveiro, Açores (Azores)*, Beja, Braga, Bragança, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, Évora, Faro, Guarda, Leiria, Lisboa, Madeira*, Portalegre, Porto, Santarém, Setúbal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real and Viseu.
See also
- Assembly of the Republic
- Censorship in Portugal
- Foreign relations of Portugal
- Member of the European Parliament
- Sinistrisme
- Politics of France (similar system of Government)
- Politics of Romania (similar system of Government)
Notes
References
External links
- Portuguese government website
- Associação portuguesa de ciência política
- Election results
- Comissão Nacional de Eleições