Poaceae ( ), also called Gramineae ( ), is a large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as true grasses. It includes the cereal grasses, bamboos, the grasses of natural grassland and species cultivated in lawns and pasture. Poaceae is the most well-known family within the informal group known as grass.

With around 780 genera and around 12,000 species, the Poaceae is the fifth-largest plant family, following the Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, Fabaceae and Rubiaceae.

The Poaceae are the most economically important plant family, including staple foods from domesticated cereal crops such as maize, wheat, rice, oats, barley, and millet for people and as feed for meat-producing animals. They provide, through direct human consumption, a substantial portion of all dietary energy: rice provides 20%, wheat supplies 19%, and maize (corn) 5%. Some members of the Poaceae are used as building materials (bamboo, thatch, and straw); others can provide a source of biofuel, primarily via the conversion of maize to ethanol.

Grasses have stems that are hollow except at the nodes and narrow alternate leaves borne in two ranks. The lower part of each leaf encloses the stem, forming a leaf-sheath. The leaf grows from the base of the blade, an adaptation allowing it to cope with frequent grazing.

Grasslands such as savannah and prairie where grasses are dominant are estimated to constitute 40.5% of the land area of the Earth, excluding Greenland and Antarctica. Grasses are also an important part of the vegetation in many other habitats, including wetlands, forests and tundra.

Though they are commonly called "grasses", groups such as the seagrasses, rushes and sedges fall outside this family. The rushes and sedges are related to the Poaceae, being members of the order Poales, but the seagrasses are members of the order Alismatales. However, all of them belong to the monocot group of plants.

Description

Grasses may be annual or perennial herbs, Grass leaves are nearly always alternate and distichous (in one plane), and have parallel veins. The perianth is reduced to two scales, called lodicules,

Three general classifications of growth habit present in grasses: bunch-type (also called caespitose), stoloniferous, and rhizomatous.

The success of the grasses lies in part in their morphology and growth processes and in part in their physiological diversity. There are both C3 and C4 grasses, referring to the photosynthetic pathway for carbon fixation. The C4 grasses have a photosynthetic pathway, linked to specialized Kranz leaf anatomy, which allows for increased water use efficiency, rendering them better adapted to hot, arid environments.

The C3 grasses are referred to as "cool-season" grasses, while the C4 plants are considered "warm-season" grasses.

Taxonomy

thumb|Sugarcane ([[Saccharum officinarum)]]

The name Poaceae was given by John Hendley Barnhart in 1895, based on the tribe Poeae described in 1814 by Robert Brown, and the type genus Poa described in 1753 by Carl Linnaeus. The term is derived from the Ancient Greek πόα (póa, "fodder").

Evolutionary history

Grasses include some of the most versatile plant life-forms. They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous period, and fossilized dinosaur dung (coprolites) belonging to the sauropod titanosaurs (though this provenance has been questioned) have been found containing phytoliths of a variety that include grasses that are related to modern rice and bamboo. Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush rain forests, dry deserts, cold mountains and even intertidal habitats, and are currently the most widespread plant type; grass is a valuable source of food and energy for all sorts of wildlife.

A cladogram shows subfamilies and approximate species numbers in brackets:

thumb|Drawing of [[Anomochloa marantoidea, one of the most primitive living grass species]]

Before 2005, fossil findings indicated that grasses evolved around 55 million years ago. Finds of grass-like phytoliths in Cretaceous dinosaur coprolites from the latest Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) aged Lameta Formation of India have pushed this date back to 66 million years ago. Due to high phosphatic content of 12.2-16.2% in Type A coprolites collected from the Lameta, an omnivore is hypothesized to be the source, contradicting the hypothesis of a sauropod origin.

In 2018, a study described grass microfossils extracted from the teeth of the hadrosauroid dinosaur Equijubus normani from northern China, dating to the Albian stage of the Early Cretaceous approximately 113–100 million years ago, which were found to belong to primitive lineages within Poaceae, similar in position to the Anomochlooideae. These are currently the oldest known grass fossils. However slightly older fossils of

Phragmites have been found in the Eastern coast of the US dating the Campanian (such as in the Black Creek Formation).

The relationships among the three subfamilies Bambusoideae, Oryzoideae and Pooideae in the BOP clade have been resolved: Bambusoideae and Pooideae are more closely related to each other than to Oryzoideae. This separation occurred within the relatively short time span of about 4 million years.

According to Lester Charles King, the spread of grasses in the Late Cenozoic would have changed patterns of hillslope evolution favouring slopes that are convex upslope and concave downslope and lacking a free face were common. King argued that this was the result of more slowly acting surface wash caused by carpets of grass which in turn would have resulted in relatively more soil creep.

Subdivisions

There are about 12,000 grass species in about 771 genera that are classified into 12 subfamilies. See the full list of Poaceae genera.

  • Anomochlooideae Pilg. ex Potztal, a small lineage of broad-leaved grasses that includes two genera (Anomochloa, Streptochaeta)
  • Pharoideae L.G.Clark & Judz., a small lineage of grasses of three genera, including Pharus and Leptaspis
  • Puelioideae L.G.Clark, M.Kobay., S.Mathews, Spangler & E.A.Kellogg, a small lineage of the African genus Puelia
  • Pooideae, including wheat, barley, oats, brome-grass (Bromus), reed-grasses (Calamagrostis) and many lawn and pasture grasses such as bluegrass (Poa)

thumb|[[Setaria verticillata from Panicoideae]]

  • Bambusoideae, including bamboo
  • Ehrhartoideae, including rice and wild rice
  • Aristidoideae, including Aristida
  • Arundinoideae, including giant reed and common reed
  • Chloridoideae, including the lovegrasses (Eragrostis, about 350 species, including teff), dropseeds (Sporobolus, some 160 species), finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.), and the muhly grasses (Muhlenbergia, about 175 species)
  • Panicoideae, including panic grass, maize, sorghum, sugarcane, most millets, fonio, "Job's tears", and bluestem grasses
  • Micrairoideae
  • Danthonioideae, including pampas grass

Distribution

The grass family is one of the most widely distributed and abundant groups of plants on Earth. Grasses are found on every continent, including Antarctica. The Antarctic hair grass, Deschampsia antarctica is one of only two flowering plant species native to the western Antarctic Peninsula.

Ecology

thumb|upright=1.15|Wind-blown grass in the [[Valles Caldera in New Mexico, United States]]

Grasses are the dominant vegetation in many habitats, including grassland, salt-marsh, reedswamp and steppes. They also occur as a smaller part of the vegetation in almost every other terrestrial habitat.

Grass-dominated biomes are called grasslands. If only large, contiguous areas of grasslands are counted, these biomes cover 31% of the planet's land.

Grasses provide food to many grazing mammals, as well as to many species of butterflies and moths.

Many types of animals eat grass as their main source of food, and are called graminivores – these include cattle, sheep, horses, rabbits and many invertebrates, such as grasshoppers and the caterpillars of many brown butterflies. Grasses are also eaten by omnivorous or even occasionally by primarily carnivorous animals.

thumb|right|A [[kangaroo eating grass]]

Grasses dominate certain biomes, especially temperate grasslands, because many species are adapted to grazing and fire.

Grasses are unusual in that the meristem is near the bottom of the plant; hence, grasses can quickly recover from cropping at the top.

The evolution of large grazing animals in the Cenozoic contributed to the spread of grasses. Without large grazers, fire-cleared areas are quickly colonized by grasses, and with enough rain, tree seedlings. Trees eventually outcompete most grasses. Trampling grazers kill seedling trees but not grasses. Meiosis research in these crop species is linked to crop improvement, since meiotic recombination is an important component of plant breeding. Their economic importance stems from several areas, including food production, industry, and lawns. They have been grown agriculturally for up to 15,000 years and the grains of grasses such as wheat, rice, maize (corn) and barley have been the most important human food crops. Grasses are also used in the manufacture of thatch, paper, fuel, clothing, insulation, timber for fencing, furniture, scaffolding and construction materials, floor matting, sports turf and baskets.

Food production

Of all crops grown, 70% are grasses. Agricultural grasses grown for their edible seeds are called cereals or grains (although the latter term, when used agriculturally, refers to both cereals and similar seeds of other plant species, such as buckwheat and legumes). Three cereals—rice, wheat, and maize (corn)—provide more than half of all calories consumed by humans. Cereals constitute the major source of carbohydrates for humans and perhaps the major source of protein; these include rice (in southern and eastern Asia), maize (in Central and South America), and wheat and barley (in Europe, northern Asia and the Americas).

Sugarcane is the major source of sugar production. Additional food uses of sugarcane include sprouted grain, shoots, and rhizomes, and in drink they include sugarcane juice and plant milk, as well as rum, beer, whisky, and vodka.

Bamboo shoots are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths, and are available in supermarkets in various sliced forms, in both fresh, fermented and canned versions.

Lemongrass is a grass used as a culinary herb for its citrus-like flavor and scent.

Many species of grass are grown as pasture for foraging or as fodder for prescribed livestock feeds, particularly in the case of cattle, horses, and sheep. Such grasses may be cut and stored for later feeding, especially for the winter, in the form of bales of hay or straw, or in silos as silage. Straw (and sometimes hay) may also be used as bedding for animals.

An example of a sod-forming perennial grass used in agriculture is Thinopyrum intermedium.

Industry

Grasses are used as raw material for a multitude of purposes, including construction and in the composition of building materials such as cob, for insulation, in the manufacture of paper and board such as oriented structural straw board. Grass fiber can be used for making paper, biofuel production, nonwoven fabrics, and as replacement for glass fibers used in reinforced plastics. Bamboo scaffolding is able to withstand typhoon-force winds that would break steel scaffolding. Larger bamboos and Arundo donax have stout culms that can be used in a manner similar to timber, Arundo is used to make reeds for woodwind instruments, and bamboo is used for innumerable implements.

'Phragmites australis' (common reed) is important for thatching and wall construction of homes in Africa. Grasses are used in water treatment systems, in wetland conservation and land reclamation, and used to lessen the erosional impact of urban storm water runoff.

Palaeoecological reconstructions

thumb|Processed, fossilised pollen from the family Poaceae. Species unknown

Pollen morphology, particularly in the Poaceae family, is key to figuring out their evolutionary relationships and how environments have changed over time. Grass pollen grains, however, often look the same, making it hard to use them for detailed climate or environmental reconstructions. Grass pollen has a single pore and can vary a lot in size, from about 20 to over 100 micrometers, and this size difference has been looked into for clues about past habitats, to tell apart domesticated grasses from wild ones, and to indicate various biological features like how they perform photosynthesis, their breeding systems, and genetic complexity.

Sports turf

Grass playing fields, courses and pitches are the traditional playing surfaces for many sports, including American football, association football, baseball, cricket, golf, and rugby. Grass surfaces are also sometimes used for horse racing and tennis. Type of maintenance and species of grass used may be important factors for some sports, less critical for others. In some sports facilities, including indoor domes and other places where maintenance of a grass field would be difficult, grass may be replaced with artificial turf, a synthetic grass-like substitute.

Cricket

thumb|The gray area is the [[cricket pitch currently in use. Parallel to it are other pitches in various states of preparation which could be used in other matches.]]

In cricket, the pitch is the strip of carefully mowed and rolled grass where the bowler bowls. In the days leading up to the match it is repeatedly mowed and rolled to produce a very hard, flat surface for the ball to bounce off.

Golf

Grass on golf courses is kept in three distinct conditions: that of the rough, the fairway, and the putting green. Grass on the fairway is mown short and even, allowing the player to strike the ball cleanly. Playing from the rough is a disadvantage because the long grass may affect the flight of the ball. Grass on the putting green is the shortest and most even, ideally allowing the ball to roll smoothly over the surface. An entire industry revolves around the development and marketing of turf grass varieties.

Tennis

In tennis, grass is grown on very hard-packed soil, and the bounce of a tennis ball may vary depending on the grass's health, how recently it has been mowed, and the wear and tear of recent play. The surface is softer than hard courts and clay (other tennis surfaces), so the ball bounces lower, and players must reach the ball faster resulting in a different style of play which may suit some players more than others. Among the world's most prestigious court for grass tennis is Centre Court at Wimbledon, London, which hosts the final of the annual Wimbledon Championships in England, one of the four Grand Slam tournaments.

Economically important grasses

{| class=wikitable cellspacing="24"

|- valign=top

! Grain crops

! Leaf and stem crops

! Lawn grasses

! Ornamental grasses <br /> (Horticultural)

! Model organisms

|-valign=top

|

  • Barley
  • Maize (corn)
  • Oats
  • Rice
  • Rye
  • Sorghum
  • Wheat
  • Millet

|

  • Bamboo
  • Marram grass
  • Meadow-grass
  • Reeds
  • Ryegrass
  • Sugarcane

|

  • Bahiagrass
  • Bentgrass
  • Bermudagrass
  • Bluegrass
  • Buffalograss
  • Centipede grass
  • Fescue
  • Ryegrass
  • St. Augustine grass
  • Zoysia

|

  • Calamagrostis spp.
  • Cortaderia spp.
  • Deschampsia spp.
  • Festuca spp.
  • Melica spp.
  • Muhlenbergia spp.
  • Stipa spp.

|

  • Brachypodium distachyon
  • Maize (corn)
  • Rice
  • Sorghum
  • Wheat

|}

A number of grasses are invasive species that damage natural ecosystems, including forms of Phragmites australis which are native to Eurasia but has spread around the world.

Role in society

thumb|Grass-covered houses in [[Iceland]]

thumb|Typical grass seen in meadows

thumb|Grass with non-grass flowers around it

Grasses have long had significance in human society. They have been cultivated as feed for people and domesticated animals for thousands of years. The primary ingredient of beer is usually barley or wheat, each of which has been used for this purpose for over 4,000 years.

In some places, particularly in suburban areas, the maintenance of a grass lawn is a sign of a homeowner's responsibility to the overall appearance of their neighborhood. One work credits lawn maintenance to:

In communities with drought problems, watering of lawns may be restricted to certain times of day or days of the week. Many US municipalities and homeowners' associations have rules that require lawns to be maintained to certain specifications, sanctioning those who allow the grass to grow too long.

The smell of freshly cut grass is produced mainly by cis-3-Hexenal.

Some common aphorisms involve grass. For example:

  • "The grass is always greener on the other side" suggests an alternate state of affairs will always seem preferable to one's own.
  • "Don't let the grass grow under your feet" tells someone to get moving.
  • "A snake in the grass" means dangers that are hidden.
  • "When elephants fight, it is the grass that suffers" tells of bystanders caught in the crossfire.

A folk myth about grass is that it refuses to grow where any violent death has occurred.

<gallery mode=packed>

File:Gräsfrön - Grass seeds - 2025.jpg|Grass seeds, a mixture of 90% Festuca rubra and 10% Festuca ovina.

File:Ruwbeemdgras Poa trivialis ligula.jpg|Leaves of Poa trivialis showing the ligules

File:Bamboo DSCN2465.jpg|Bamboo stem and leaves, nodes are evident

File:Chasmanthium latifolium-spikelet.jpg|A Chasmanthium latifolium spikelet

File:En Spica spiculae.png|Wheat spike and spikelet

File:En Aperta.png|Spikelet opened to show caryopsis

File:Harestail grass.jpg|Harestail grass

File:Grass.jpg|Grass

File:Bromus hordeaceus unten.jpeg|Roots of Bromus hordeaceus

File:Ohra.jpg|Barley mature spikes (Hordeum vulgare)

File:Flowering Grass.JPG|A grass flower head (meadow foxtail) showing the plain-coloured flowers with large anthers

File:Grass Anthers.JPG|Anthers detached from a meadow foxtail flower

File:Setaria verticillata W IMG 1084.jpg|Setaria verticillata, bristly foxtail

File:Setaria verticillata W IMG 1083.jpg|Setaria verticillata, bristly foxtail

File:Oryza sativa in Kadavoor.jpg|Oryza sativa, Kerala, India

</gallery>

See also

References

  • Need a Definition of Grass?
  • Vegetative Key to Grasses
  • Poaceae at The Plant List
  • Learn about grasses at The Story of the Poaceae
  • Gramineae at The Families of Flowering Plants (DELTA)
  • Poaceae at the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website
  • Poaceae Classification from the online Catalogue of New World Grasses
  • Poaceae at the online Guide to the Flora of Mongolia
  • Poaceae at the online Flora of Taiwan
  • Poaceae at the online Flora of Pakistan
  • Poaceae at the online Flora of Zimbabwe
  • Poaceae at the online Flora of Western Australia
  • Grasses of Australia (AusGrass2) – AusGrass2 | Grasses of Australia
  • Gramineae at the online Flora of New Zealand
  • NZ Grass Key An Interactive Key to New Zealand Grasses at Landcare Research
  • The Grass Genera of the World at DELTA intkey
  • GrassWorld