Palenquero (sometimes spelled Palenkero) or Palenque () is a Spanish-based creole language spoken in Colombia. It is believed to be a mixture of Kikongo (a language spoken in the present-day Central African countries of Angola, Gabon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo) and Spanish. However, there is not sufficient evidence to indicate that Palenquero is strictly the result of a two-language contact. It could also have absorbed elements of local indigenous languages.
Palenquero is considered to be the only surviving Spanish-based creole language in Latin America. In 2018 more than 6,600 people spoke this language.
History
The formation of Palenquero is recorded from the 17th century with the dilution of the Spanish language and the increase of maroon activity. Existing records dating from the era of Cartagena’s slave trade allude to the pidgin from which Palenquero evolved. As illustrated in the ethnographic text of De Instauranda Aethiopum Salute (1627), the priest Alonso de Sandoval refers to the ‘corruption of our Spanish language’ commonly spoken amongst African slaves.
Decline
For almost two decades in the 21st century, Palenquero has been classified as an endangered language. Although it is spoken in parallel with Spanish, the latter has dominated the regular linguistic activity of Palenque de San Basilio. Some 53% of residents are unable to speak Palenquero.
The decline of Palenquero can be traced to the establishment of sugar and banana plantations. Many natives left the village in order to find work either in the Panama Canal or the Department of Magdalena.
Racial discrimination against people of ethnic African descent added to the decline of Palenquero. Some parents did not feel comfortable continuing to teach their children the language.
Revitalization
With its legacy of cultural resistance, Palenquero has survived since the early 17th century despite the many challenges. In recent years, scholars and activists have encouraged teaching and use of Palenquero, and native speakers are encouraged. Three major events have contributed to the revived interest in the Palenquero creole:
Antonio Cervantes
Antonio Cervantes, also known as Kid Pambelé, is an internationally recognized boxing champion born in Palenque de San Basilio. After he won the 1972 world Jr. Welterweight championship, local residents took pride in both the village and Palenquero as a language. As result, Palenque de San Basilio attracted interest by many journalists and politicians.
Gender
Grammatical gender is non-existent, and adjectives derived from Spanish default to the masculine form: ' ‘African language’. The younger speakers of Palenquero utilize ' for plurality more so than the speakers that came before them.
This particle is usually dropped with cardinal numbers greater than two: ' "two cows" but ' "13 years".
Examples:
- (You are not my mother)
- ' (My wife is black and I am black)
- (I will be a doctor)
- (That woman is fat)
Vocabulary
Some 300 words of African origin have been identified in Palenquero, with many believed to originate in the Kikongo language. A comprehensive list and proposed etymologies are provided in Moñino and Schwegler's "Palenque, Cartagena y Afro-Caribe: historia y lengua" (2002). Many of the words that come from African origin, include plant, animal, insect and landscape names.