Pala Empire - WikiHQ

The Pāla Empire was an empire ruled by the Pala ( in Prakrit and Sanskrit) dynasty, an early medieval Indian dynasty. The empire was founded with the election of Gopāla by the chiefs of Gauda in late eighth century CE. The Pala stronghold was located in Bengal and Bihar, which included the major cities of Gauḍa, Vikramapura, Pāṭaliputra, Monghyr, Somapura, Ramavati (Varendra), Tāmralipta and Jagaddala.

The Pālas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for its vast war elephant corps. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive roles in the Bay of Bengal. At its zenith under emperors Dharmapala and Devapala in the early ninth century, the Pala empire was the dominant power in the northern Indian subcontinent, with its territory stretching across the Gangetic plain down to the Vindya range and may have extended to Goalpara in Assam. Dharmapala also exerted influence through the Buddhist scholar Atis Dipankar in Tibet, as well as in Southeast Asia. He was referred to as 'uttarapathaswami '. After a brief period of decline, emperor Mahipala I successfully defended his domains in Bengal and Bihar against the south Indian Chola invasions. Ramapala was the last strong Pala emperor who held control of Kamarupa and Kalinga. The empire became considerably weakened with their heavy dependence on Samantas being exposed after 11th-century Varendra rebellion, which led to the rise of resurgent Hindu Senas as sovereign power in the 12th century and expulsion of the Palas from Bengal, marking the end of the last major Buddhist imperial power in the subcontinent.

The Pala period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war between warring divisions. They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding works of arts and architecture. The Charyapada in Proto-Bengali language was written by Buddhist Mahasiddhas of tantric tradition, which laid the basis of several eastern Indian languages in their rule. Palas built grand Buddhist temples and monasteries (Viharas), including the Somapura Mahavihara and Odantapuri, and patronised the great universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila. The Pala empire maintained relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Islam first arrived in Bengal during this period as a result of flourishing mercantile and intellectual contacts with Middle-East. The Pala legacy is still reflected in Tibetan Buddhism.

History

Origins

thumb|Vishnu with His Consorts, Lakshmi and Sarasvati, 11–12th century, Bihar or Bengal, Pala period

There is no clear evidence for their origin or early history of the Palas. Historians rely on indirect evidence to understand their reign, leading to controversies about their ancestry. A eulogy on the Khalimpur copper plate of Gopala describes his father Vapyata as a Khanditarati or "killer of enemies", and his grandfather Dayitavishnu as Sarva-vidyavadata ("all-knowing" in the sense "highly educated"). Whereas as per a contemporary source, Gopala was born in a family of Dasajivinah. Tibetan Lama Taranatha in his History of Buddhism in India described that Gopala was born of the seed of a certain tree-god from the womb of a kshatriya woman. Historian Niharranjan Ray mentions that this story is connected with totemic lore, and it is a reflection of the society outside of Puranic Brahmanism.

The Ramacharitam attests that Varendra (North Bengal) was the fatherland (Janakabhu) of the Palas. In Ramacaritam Dharmapala is hailed as the glory of the Samudra Dynasty; Taranatha too suggested a close connection between Dharmapala and the Samudras (Seas), and in the Dharmamangal of Ghanaram there ls the suggestion of a relationship between Dharmapala's queen and the Samudras. Historian Niharranjan Ray suggested some possible relationship between the Pala kings and the ocean-going men of Gauda. Modern scholars believe Palas were Buddhists as their court became a stronghold and their copper plates emphasised Buddhist affiliation but large majority of images and inscriptions testify that the Palas patronized the brahmans and the worship of Shiva and Vishnu.

Establishment

After the fall of Shashanka's kingdom, the Bengal region was in a state of anarchy. There was no central authority, and there was constant struggle between petty chieftains. The contemporary writings describe this situation as matsya nyaya ("fish justice" i.e. a situation where the big fish eat the small fish). Gopala ascended the throne as the first Pala king during these times. The Khalimpur copper plate suggests that the prakriti (people) of the region made him the king. Taranatha, writing nearly 800 years later, also writes that he was democratically elected by the people of Bengal. However, his account is in form of a legend, and is considered historically unreliable. The legend mentions that after a period of anarchy, the people elected several kings in succession, all of whom were consumed by the Naga queen of an earlier king on the night following their election. Gopal, however managed to kill the queen and remained on the throne. The historical evidence indicates that Gopala was not elected directly by his citizens, but by a group of feudal chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region. consolidating his power over the whole of Bengal including Gaur, Varendra and Banga, also extending his rule over parts of Magadha. According to R. C. Majumdar, Gopala ruled till 770 CE.

Imperial expansion and consolidation

Gopala's empire was greatly expanded by his son Dharmapala and his grandson Devapala. Dharmapala was initially defeated by the Pratihara ruler Vatsaraja. Later, the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated both Dharmapala and Vatsaraja. After Dhruva left for the Deccan region, Dharmapala built a mighty empire in the northern India. He defeated Indrayudha of Kannauj, and installed his own nominee Chakrayudha on the throne of Kannauj. Several other smaller states in North India also acknowledged his suzerainty, as far as Jalandhara. Soon, his expansion was checked by Vatsaraja's son Nagabhata II, who conquered Kannauj and drove away Chakrayudha. Nagabhata II then advanced up to Munger and defeated Dharmapala in a pitched battle. Dharmapala was forced to surrender and to seek alliance with the Rashtrakuta emperor Govinda III, who then intervened by invading northern India and defeating Nagabhata II. The Rashtrakuta records show that both Chakrayudha and Dharmapala recognised the Rashtrakuta suzerainty. In practice, Dharmapala gained control over North India after Govinda III left for the Deccan. He adopted the title Paramesvara Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja. The inscriptions of his successors also claim several other territorial conquests by him, but these are possibly exaggerated (see the Geography section below).

According to Tibetan sources, the emperors; Khri-srong-lda-btsan (Trisong Detsen) and his son, Mu-teg-btsan-po (Ralpacan), conquered India and made Dharmapala submit. Whether this is historically accurate has been debated between historians however it can be asserted that Devapala came into conflict with the Tibetans. Chinese records, indicate Tibetan control over the Himalayas was lost from 839 to 848 CE which was during Devapala's reign. During the period when Dharmapala's reign was coming to a close and Devapala's reign was beginning, the Pratihāra ruler Nagabhatta attacked the Palas allied with the Tibetan Empire. Devapala defeated the Tibetan kings. The Dullu inscription of King Prithvimalla confirms Devapala's conquest with the mention of the establishment of the Pala Dynasty of Nepal with the first ruler being Adipala whose lineage would continue to rule for sixteen generations.

Devapala's oldest son, Rajyapala predeceased him, and as so Mahendrapala, his next older son succeeded him. He possibly maintained his father's vast territories and carried out further campaigns against the Utkalas and the Hunas. He passed his empire intact to his younger brother Shurapala I, who held sway over a considerably large territory encompassing Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, proven by his Mirzapur copperplate.

What happened in Gopala II's rule, the son of Surapala I, is still unknown. After Gopala II, Dharmapala's line came to an end for reasons which are not known yet. Dharmapala's descendants, if any, were passed over as Dharmapala's younger brother, Vakapala's lineage assumed the throne.

First period of decline

Shortly afterwards, the empire gradually started disintegrating. Vakapala's grandson and Jayapala's son, Vigrahapala I abdicated the throne after a brief rule, and became an ascetic. Vigrahapala's son and successor Narayanapala proved to be a weak ruler. During his 54-year long reign, Mihira Bhoja defeated the Palas. Encouraged by the Pala decline, the King Harjara of Assam assumed imperial titles. Earlier it was thought that his son Gopala III lost Bengal after a few years of rule, and then ruled only Bihar. However, it has been debunked by his Bhagalpur inscription, in which he granted a Brahmin two villages in Pundrabardhanabhukti in Northern Bengal, signalling his control over it. His son and the next king, Vigrahapala II, had to bear the invasions from the Chandelas and the Kalachuris. During his reign, the Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms like Gauda, Radha, Anga and Vanga. Kantideva of Harikela (eastern and southern Bengal) also assumed the title Maharajadhiraja, and established a separate kingdom, later ruled by the Chandra dynasty. Mahipala also gained control of north and south Bihar, probably aided by the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni, which exhausted the strength of other rulers of North India. He may have also conquered Varanasi and surrounding area, as his brothers Sthirapala and Vasantapala undertook construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Varanasi. Later, the Kalachuri king Gangeyadeva annexed Varanasi after defeating the ruler of Anga, which was probably Mahipala's son Nayapala.

Revival under Ramapala

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After gaining control of Varendra, Ramapala tried to revive the Pala Empire with some success. He ruled from a new capital at Ramavati, which remained the Pala capital until the dynasty's end. He reduced taxation, promoted cultivation and constructed public utilities. He brought Kamarupa and Rar under his control, and forced the Varman king of east Bengal to accept his suzerainty. He also struggled with the Ganga king for control of present-day Orissa; the Gangas managed to annexe the region only after his death. Ramapala maintained friendly relations with the Chola king Kulottunga to secure support against the common enemies: the Ganas and the Chalukyas. He kept the Senas in check but lost Mithila to a Karnat chief named Nanyadeva who formed his own kingdom based out of Mithila. He also held back the aggressive design of the Gahadavala ruler Govindacharndra through a matrimonial alliance, by marrying off his cousin Kumaradevi to the king.

Final decline

Ramapala was the final strong Pala Emperor, although his son Kumarapala managed to keep most of his territories. After his death, a rebellion broke out in Kamarupa during his son Kumarapala's reign. The rebellion was crushed by Vaidyadeva, minister of Kumarapala. Vaidyadeva also won a naval war in southern Bengal for his liege. but after Kumarapala's death, Vaidyadeva practically created a separate kingdom. Gopala IV either died in battle or was murdered by Madanapala. During Madanapala's rule, the Varmans in east Bengal declared independence, and the Eastern Gangas renewed the conflict in Orissa. Madanapala captured Munger from the Gahadavalas, but was defeated by Vijayasena, who gained control of southern and eastern Bengal. Two rulers, named Govindapala and Palapala ruled over the Gaya district from around 1162 CE to 1200 CE, but there is no concrete evidence about their relationship to the imperial Palas. The Pala dynasty was replaced by the Sena dynasty. The descendants of the Palas, who claimed the status of Kshatriya, "almost imperceptibly merged" with the Kayastha caste.

Geography

thumb|Vishnu Flanked by His Personified Attributes, early 9th century CE, Pala period, Bihar, India

The borders of the Pala Empire kept fluctuating throughout its existence. Though the Palas conquered a vast region in North India at one time, they could not retain it for long due to constant hostility from the Gurjara-Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas and other less powerful kings.

No records are available about the exact boundaries of original kingdom established by Gopala, but it might have included almost all of the Bengal region.

The Gurjaras mentioned were no doubt the Pratiharas and it is inferred that the Pratihara king was Mihir Bhoja.
The Dravida king mentioned in the inscriptions was generally thought to be the Rashtrakuta's Amoghavarsha but has been identified as the Pandya King, Sri-Mara Sri-Vallabha.
The subjugation of the Utkalas (Bhauma-Kara dynasty) naturally brought Devapala into geographical contact with the southern peninsula and it wasn't unnatural that hostilities developed between the contemporary Pala and Pandya rulers. According to Nitish K. Sengupta, the Badal Pillar inscription is highly exaggerated. However, Both Pramode Lal Paul and Ratikanta Tripathi assert that the statement, "the whole tract bounded by the Vindhyas and the Himalayas and by the eastern and western seas paid tribute to Devapala", was not merely a political exaggeration in the Badal inscription, but an actual fact. Moreover, Taranatha also credits Devapala for having subjugated the whole of Northern India from the Himalayas to the Vindhyan Mountains. Devapala's control over the east sea (Arabian Sea) can also be proved by the records of Devapala having "carried his arms as far as the Sindhu". Bindeshwari Prasad Sinha, an Indian archaeologist and historian states that some exaggerations are naturally present in praises like those found in the Badal Pillar inscription of Narayanapala, but it is equally unreasonable to dismiss the entire description of Devapala's conquests as mere bombast. In any case, the neighbouring Rashtrakutas and the Gurjara-Pratiharas were weak at the time and it would not be implausible to say that they were subdued by Devapala.

Devapala's Territorial Succession

His sons and grandson probably managed to keep the core area of the empire intact. However, the empire started disintegrating shortly after. Narayanapala lost control of Assam and Orissa. It was thought he also briefly lost control over Magadha and north Bengal, although it has now been debunked. Gopala III suffered serious reverses at the hands of the Chandra king, and ruled only from a part of northern Bengal. The Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms during the reign of Vigrahapala II. Mahipala recovered parts of Bengal, Bihar and up to Varansi. His successors lost east and south Bengal again. The last strong Pala ruler, Ramapala, gained control of Bengal, Bihar, Assam and parts of Orissa. The Line of Garga served as the Prime Ministers of the Palas for 100 years.

Garga
Darvapani (or Darbhapani)
Someshwar
Kedarmisra
Bhatta Guravmisra

Pala Empire was divided into separate Bhuktis (Provinces). Bhuktis were divided into Vishayas (Divisions) and Mandalas (Districts). Smaller units were Khandala, Bhaga, Avritti, Chaturaka, and Pattaka. Administration covered widespread area from the grass root level to the imperial court.

The Pala copperplates mention following administrative posts:

Culture

Religion

thumb|[[Nalanda is considered one of the first great Buddhist Mahaviras in recorded history. It reached its height under Palas.]]

right|thumb|[[Atisha was a Buddhist teacher who helped establish the Sarma lineages of Tibetan Buddhism.]]

Buddhism

The Palas were patrons of Mahayana Buddhism. A few sources written much after Gopala's death mention him as a Buddhist, but it is not known if this is true. The subsequent Pala kings were definitely Buddhists. Dharmapala made the Buddhist philosopher Haribhadra his spiritual preceptor. He established the Vikramashila monastery and the Somapura Mahavihara. Taranatha also credits him with establishing 50 religious institutions and patronising the Buddhist author Haribhadra. Devapala restored and enlarged the structures at Somapura Mahavihara, which also features several themes from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. Mahipala I also ordered construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya. The request was granted by Devapala. He appointed the Brahmin Viradeva (of Nagarahara, present-day Jalalabad) as the head of the Nalanda monastery. The Buddhist poet Vajradatta (the author of Lokesvarashataka), was in his court.

Devapala built a temple dedicated to Shiva's consort, and Mahipala patronised a Shaivite monastery. A 1026 CE inscription recording renovations of Buddhist structures at Sarnath by Pala princes states that Mahipala I had them built "hundreds" of temples of Shiva, Chitraghanta, and other deities in Varanasi.

Narayanapala's Bhagalpur inscription suggests that he built several Shiva temples, and records his grant of a village to Pashupatas. Narayanapala also attended a sacrifice by his Brahmin minister. Nayapala's Siyan inscription suggests that he built several temples dedicated to Shiva and his various aspects (such as Bhairava), plus temples dedicated to the Nine Durgas, the Mother Goddess, Vishnu, and Lakshmi. Despite this, it is unlikely that Nayapala had fully rejected Buddhist teachings, since 17-th century Tibetan writer Taranatha states that he had a Buddhist preceptor.

Madanapala's queen Chitramatika, gifted land to a brahmana named Vateshvara-svami Sharma as his remuneration for reciting the Mahabharata.

Literature

The Palas patronised several Sanskrit scholars, some of whom were their officials. The Gauda riti style of composition was developed during the Pala rule. Many Buddhist Tantric works were authored and translated during the Pala rule. Besides the Buddhist scholars mentioned in the Religion section above, Jimutavahana, Sandhyakar Nandi, Madhava-kara, Suresvara and Chakrapani Datta are some of the other notable scholars from the Pala period. It is influenced by the Gupta art.

The Pala style was inherited and continued to develop under the Sena Empire. During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras. The typical form for temple images is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration. The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail. In east India, facial features tend to become sharp.

Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods. Probably the numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold.

File:Lalita statue.jpg|A basalt statue of Lalita flanked by Gaṇeśa and Kārttikeya

File:Carved Conch.jpg|Carved shankhas

File:Nswag, india bengala occidentale, periodo pala (760-1142) varana che libera la dea della terra bhudevi, X sec..JPG|Sculpture of Varaha avatar of Lord Vishnu

File:Standing Rishabhanatha.jpg|Jina Rishabhanatha

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As noted earlier, the Palas built a number of monasteries and other sacred structures. The Somapura Mahavihara in present-day Bangladesh is a World Heritage Site. It is a monastery with a complex with 177 cells, numerous stupas, temples and a number of other ancillary buildings. The gigantic structures of other Viharas, including Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are the other masterpieces of the Palas. The art of Bengal and Bihar during the Pala dynasty influenced the art of Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka and Java.

File:পাহাড়পুর বৌদ্ধ বিহার 22.jpg|Somapura Mahavihara, a World Heritage Site, was built by Dharmapala

File:Central Sherine deccor-Paharpur.jpg|Central shrine decor at Somapura

File:Vikramshila 2012-08-10-17.48.39.jpg|Ruins of Vikramashila

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List of Pala rulers

Most of the Pala inscriptions mention only the regnal year as the date of issue, without any well-known calendar era. Because of this, the chronology of the Pala kings is hard to determine.

{| class="wikitable"

! RC Majumdar (1971)

! AM Chowdhury (1967)

! BP Sinha (1977)

! DC Sircar (1975–76)

! D. K. Ganguly (1994)

| Gopala I

| 750–770

| 756–781

| 755–783

| 750–775

| 750–774

| Dharmapala

| 770–810

| 781–821

| 783–820

| 775–812

| 774–806

| Devapala

| 810–

| 821–861

| 820–860

| 812–850

| 806–845

| Mahendrapala

| colspan="4" | NA (Mahendrapala's existence was conclusively established through a copper-plate charter discovered later.)

| 845–860

| Shurapala I

| colspan="3" | Deemed to be alternate name of Vigrahapala I

| 850–858

| 860–872

| Gopala II

| colspan="5" | NA (copper-plate charter discovered in 1995. Text of inscription published in 2009.)

| Vigrahapala I

| 850–853

| 861–866

| 860–865

| 858–60

| 872–873

| Narayanapala

| 854–908

| 866–920

| 865–920

| 860–917

| 873–927

| Rajyapala

| 908–940

| 920–952

| 917–952

| 927–959

| Gopala III

| 940–957

| 952–969

| 952–967

| 952–972

| 959–976

| Vigrahapala II

| 960–

| 969–995

| 967–980

| 972–977

| 976–977

| Mahipala I

| 988–

| 995–1043

| 980–1035

| 977–1027

| Nayapala

| 1038–1053

| 1043–1058

| 1035–1050

| 1027–1043

| Vigrahapala III

| 1054–1072

| 1058–1075

| 1050–1076

| 1043–1070

| Mahipala II

| 1072–1075

| 1075–1080

| rowspan="2" | 1076–1078/9

| 1070–1071

| Shurapala II

| 1075–1077

| 1080–1082

| 1071–1072

| Ramapala

| 1077–1130

| 1082–1124

| 1078/9–1132

| 1072–1126

| Kumarapala

| 1130–1140

| 1124–1129

| 1132–1136

| 1126–1128

| Gopala IV

| 1140–1144

| 1129–1143

| 1136–1144

| 1128–1143

| Madanapala

| 1144–1162

| 1143–1162

| 1144–1161/62

| 1143–1161

| Govindapala

| 1158–1162

| NA

| 1162–1176 or 1158–1162

| 1161–1165

| Palapala

| NA

| 1165–1199

| 1165–1200

Family tree

Note:

A king, Bhimapala also finds a mention in the Sabdapradipa. Rajat Sanyal argues that if Govindapala and Palapala are indeed accepted as Pala kings, Bhimapala also should be, provided that he was chronologically close to Ramapala according to the wording of the text. However, both need more historical evidence.

Sources

The main sources of information about the Pala Empire include:

; Pala accounts

Various epigraphs, coins, sculptures and architecture
Ramacharita, a Sanskrit work by Abhinanda (9th century)
Ramacharitam, a Sanskrit epic by Sandhyakar Nandi (12th century)
Subhasita Ratnakosa, a Sanskrit compilation by Vidyakara (towards the end of the Pala rule)

; Other accounts

Silsiltut-Tauarikh by the Arab merchant Suleiman (851 CE), who referred to the Pala kingdom as Ruhmi or Rahma
Dpal dus khyi 'khor lo'i chos bskor gyi byung khungs nyer mkh (History of Buddhism in India) by Taranatha (1608), contains a few traditional legends and hearsays about the Pala rule
Ain-i-Akbari by Abu'l-Fazl (16th-century)

Notes

References

Bibliography

Craven, Roy C., Indian Art: A Concise History, 1987, Thames & Hudson (Praeger in USA),
Harle, J. C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press. (Pelican History of Art),