thumb|Om [[Ligature (writing)|ligature in Devanagari script]]
thumb|Om () in [[Tamil script with a trishula at Sri Veeramakaliamman Temple, Singapore; Om appears frequently as an icon in temples (kovils) and spiritual retreats]]
thumb|A [[rangoli featuring Om surrounded by stylised peacocks; Om often features prominently in the religious art and iconography of Indian religions]]
thumb|A [[Raksha Bandhan|rakhi in the shape of Om]]
Om (or Aum; ; , ISO 15919: Ōṁ) is a polysemous symbol representing a sacred sound, seed syllable, mantra, and invocation in Hinduism as well as in other Indian religions. Its written form is the most important symbol in the Hindu religion. It is the essence of the supreme Absolute, Ātman, Brahman, or the cosmic world. In Indian religions, Om serves as a sonic representation of the divine, a standard of Vedic authority and a central aspect of soteriological doctrines and practices. It is the basic tool for meditation in the yogic path to liberation. The syllable is often found at the beginning and the end of chapters in the Vedas, the Upanishads, and other Hindu texts.
Om emerged in the Vedic corpus and is said to be an encapsulated form of Samavedic chants or songs. It is part of the iconography found in ancient and medieval era manuscripts, temples, monasteries, and spiritual retreats in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. As a syllable, it is often chanted either independently or before a spiritual recitation and during meditation in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
The syllable Om is also referred to as Onkara (Omkara) and Pranava among many other names.
Common names and synonyms
The syllable Om is referred to by many names, including:
- ' (); literally, "fore-sound", referring to Om as the primeval sound.
- ' () or ' (); literally, "Om-maker", denoting the first source of the sound Om and connoting the act of creation.
- ' (); literally, "one Om-maker", and an epithet of God in Sikhism. (see below).
- ' (); meaning "song, chant", a word found in Samaveda and bhasya (commentaries) based on it. It is also used as a name of the syllable Om in Chandogya Upanishad.
- ' (); literally, "imperishable, immutable", and also "letter of the alphabet" or "syllable".
- '; literally, "one letter of the alphabet", referring to its representation as a single ligature. (see below)
Origin and spiritual significance
The etymological origins of ōm (aum) have long been discussed and disputed, with even the Upanishads having proposed multiple Sanskrit etymologies for aum, including: from "ām" (; "yes"), from "ávam" (; "that, thus, yes"), and from the Sanskrit roots "āv-" (; "to urge") or "āp-" (; "to attain"). In 1889, Maurice Bloomfield proposed an origin from a Proto-Indo-European introductory particle "*au" with a function similar to the Sanskrit particle "atha" (). In the Jaffna Tamil dialect spoken in Sri Lanka, aum is the word for yes.
Om emerged in the Vedic corpus and is said to be an encapsulated form of Samavedic chants or songs. However, regardless of its original meaning, the syllable Om evolves to mean many abstract ideas even in the earliest Upanishads. Max Müller and other scholars state that these philosophical texts recommend Om as a basic tool for meditation
In the Aranyaka and the Brahmana layers of Vedic texts, the syllable is so widespread and linked to knowledge, that it stands for the "whole of Veda". In the Upanishads, it has been associated with various concepts, such as "cosmic sound", "mystical syllable", "affirmation to something divine", or as symbolism for abstract spiritual concepts.
Pronunciation
When occurring within spoken Classical Sanskrit, the syllable is subject to the normal rules of sandhi in Sanskrit grammar, with the additional peculiarity that the initial o of "Om" is the guṇa vowel grade of u, not the vṛddhi grade, and is therefore pronounced as a monophthong with a long vowel (), i.e. ōm not aum. Furthermore, the final m is often assimilated into the preceding vowel as nasalisation (). As a result, Om is regularly pronounced in the context of Sanskrit.
However, this o reflects the older Vedic Sanskrit diphthong au, which at that stage in the language's history had not yet monophthongised to o. This being so, the syllable Om is often archaically considered as consisting of three phonemes: "a-u-m". Accordingly, some denominations maintain the archaic diphthong au viewing it to be more authentic and closer to the language of the Vedas.
In the context of the Vedas, particularly the Vedic Brahmanas, the vowel is often pluta ("three times as long"), indicating a length of three morae (), that is, the time it takes to say three light syllables. Additionally, a diphthong becomes with the prolongation of its first vowel. realised as an overlong open back unrounded vowel (ā̄um or a3um ). This extended duration is emphasised by denominations who regard it as more authentically Vedic, such as Arya Samaj.
However, Om is also attested in the Upanishads without pluta, and many languages related to or influenced by Classical Sanskrit, such as Hindustani, share its pronunciation of Om ( or ).
Written representations
South Asia
thumb|Statue depicting [[Shiva as the Nataraja dancing in a posture resembling the Devangari ligature for Om; Joseph Campbell argued that the Nataraja statue represents Om as a symbol of the entirety of "consciousness, universe" and "the message that God is within a person and without"]]
Nagari or Devanagari representations are found epigraphically on sculpture dating from Medieval India and on ancient coins in regional scripts throughout South Asia. Om is represented in Devanagari as , composed of four elements: the vowel letter (), the vowel diacritic (), the consonant letter (), and the virama stroke which indicates the absence of an implied final vowel. Historically, the combination represented a diphthong, often transcribed as , but it now represents a long vowel, . (See above.) The syllable is sometimes written , where (i.e., the digit "3") explicitly indicates pluta ('three times as long') which is otherwise only implied. For this same reason Om may also be written in languages such as Hindi, with the () being used to indicate prolonging the vowel sound. (However, this differs from the usage of the in Sanskrit, where it would instead indicate the prodelision of the initial vowel.) Om may also be written , with an reflecting the pronunciation of in languages such as Hindi. In languages such as Urdu and Sindhi Om may be written in Arabic script, although speakers of these languages may also use Devanagari representations.
The commonly seen representation of the syllable Om, , is a cursive ligature in Devanagari, combining () with () and the chandrabindu (ँ,). In Unicode, the symbol is encoded at and at as a "generic symbol independent of Devanagari font".
In some South Asian writing systems, the Om symbol has been simplified further. In Bengali and Assamese Om is written simply as without an additional curl. In languages such as Bengali differences in pronunciation compared to Sanskrit have made the addition of a curl for redundant. Although the spelling is simpler, the pronunciation remains . Similarly, in Odia Om is written as without an additional diacritic.
In Tamil, Om is written as , a ligature of (ō) and (m), while in Kannada, Telugu, and Malayalam, Om is written simply as the letter for ō followed by (, , and , respectively).
There have been proposals that the Om syllable may already have had written representations in Brahmi script, dating to before the Common Era. A proposal by Deb (1921) held that the swastika is a monogrammatic representation of the syllable Om, wherein two Brahmi /o/ characters () were superposed crosswise and the 'm' was represented by dot. A commentary in Nature (1922) considers this theory questionable and unproven. A. B. Walawalkar (1951) proposed that Om was represented using the Brahmi symbols for "A", "U", and "M" (), and that this may have influenced the unusual epigraphical features of the symbol for Om. Parker (1909) wrote that an "Aum monogram", distinct from the swastika, is found among Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions in Sri Lanka, including Anuradhapura era coins, dated from the 1st to 4th centuries CE, which are embossed with Om along with other symbols.
East and Southeast Asia
The Om symbol, with epigraphical variations, is also found in many Southeast Asian countries.
In Southeast Asia, the Om symbol is widely conflated with that of the unalome; originally a representation of the Buddha's urna curl and later a symbol of the path to nirvana, it is a popular yantra in Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia and Thailand. It frequently appears in sak yant religious tattoos, and has been a part of various flags and official emblems such as in the Thong Chom Klao of King Rama IV () and the present-day royal arms of Cambodia.
The Khmer adopted the symbol since the 1st century during the Kingdom of Funan, where it is also seen on artefacts from Angkor Borei, once the capital of Funan. The symbol is seen on numerous Khmer statues from Chenla to Khmer Empire periods and still in used until the present day.
In Chinese characters, Om is typically transliterated as either 唵 () or 嗡 ().
Representation in various scripts
Northern Brahmic
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Southern Brahmic
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Non-Brahmic
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Hinduism
thumb|left|Om appears frequently in Hindu texts and scriptures, notably appearing in the first verse of the [[Rigveda]]
In Hinduism, Om is one of the most important spiritual sounds. which is the ultimate reality, consciousness or Atman (Self within).
It is called the Shabda Brahman (Brahman as sound) and believed to be the primordial sound () of the universe.
Vedas
Om came to be used as a standard utterance at the beginning of mantras, chants or citations taken from the Vedas. For example, the Gayatri mantra, which consists of a verse from the Rigveda Samhita (RV 3.62.10), is prefixed not just by Om but by Om followed by the formula bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ. Such recitations continue to be in use in Hinduism, with many major incantations and ceremonial functions beginning and ending with Om. It calls the syllable Om as udgitha (; song, chant), and asserts that the significance of the syllable is thus: the essence of all beings is earth, the essence of earth is water, the essence of water are the plants, the essence of plants is man, the essence of man is speech, the essence of speech is the Rigveda, the essence of the Rigveda is the Samaveda, and the essence of Samaveda is the udgitha (song, Om).
The second volume of the first chapter continues its discussion of syllable Om, explaining its use as a struggle between Devas (gods) and Asuras (demons). Max Muller states that this struggle between gods and demons is considered allegorical by ancient Indian scholars, as good and evil inclinations within man, respectively. The legend in section 1.2 of Chandogya Upanishad states that gods took the Udgitha (song of Om) unto themselves, thinking, "with this song we shall overcome the demons". The syllable Om is thus implied as that which inspires the good inclinations within each person. In the second chapter of the Chandogya Upanishad, the meaning and significance of Om evolves into a philosophical discourse, such as in section 2.10 where Om is linked to the Highest Self, and section 2.23 where the text asserts Om is the essence of three forms of knowledge, Om is Brahman and "Om is all this [observed world]".
Katha Upanishad
The Katha Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa, the son of sage , who meets Yama, the Vedic deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, Atman (Self) and moksha (liberation). In section 1.2, Katha Upanishad characterises knowledge () as the pursuit of the good, and ignorance () as the pursuit of the pleasant. It teaches that the essence of the Veda is to make man liberated and free, look past what has happened and what has not happened, free from the past and the future, beyond good and evil, and one word for this essence is the word Om.
The significance of the sacred syllable in the Hindu traditions, is similarly highlighted in other verses of the Gita, such as verse 17.24 where the importance of Om during prayers, charity and meditative practices is explained as follows:
Puranas
The medieval era texts of Hinduism, such as the Puranas adopt and expand the concept of Om in their own ways, and to their own theistic sects.
Vaishnava traditions
The Vaishnava Garuda Purana equates the recitation of Om with obeisance to Vishnu. According to the Vayu Purana, Om is the representation of the Hindu Trimurti, and represents the union of the three gods, viz. A for Brahma, U for Vishnu and M for Shiva. The Bhagavata Purana (9.14.46-48) identifies the Pranava as the root of all Vedic mantras, and describes the combined letters of a-u-m as an invocation of seminal birth, initiation, and the performance of sacrifice (yajña).
In Śrī Vaiṣṇava tradition, sub-traditions differ on who has eligibility to say Oṁ, but it is generally a "nonissue" as it is not necessary for salvation. The Teṉkalai division, represented by Piḷḷailokācārya in his Parantapaṭi, allow everyone to recite the praṇava, arguing the syllable arises spontaneously from all. The Vaṭakalai division, represented by Vedāntadeśika in his Rahasyatrayasāra, disallows women and śūdras from reciting the praṇava, citing older scriptural injunctions to support the stance.
Shaiva traditions
thumb|Om symbol with a [[trishula at Kanaka Durga Temple, Vijayawada]]
In Shaiva traditions, the Shiva Purana highlights the relation between deity Shiva and the Pranava or Om. Shiva is declared to be Om, and that Om is Shiva.
After this, an epithet of Shiva is Omkareshwar, the Lord, Ishvara, of oṃkāra.
Shakta traditions
In the thealogy of Shakta traditions, Om connotes the female divine energy, Adi Parashakti, represented in the Tridevi: A for the creative energy (the Shakti of Brahma), Mahasaraswati, U for the preservative energy (the Shakti of Vishnu), Mahalakshmi, and M for the destructive energy (the Shakti of Shiva), Mahakali. The 12th book of the Devi-Bhagavata Purana describes the Goddess as the mother of the Vedas, the Adya Shakti (primal energy, primordial power), and the essence of the Gayatri mantra.
Other texts
thumb|[[Radha and Krishna intertwined with an Om () and surrounded by scenes from their life]]
Yoga Sutra
The aphoristic verse 1.27 of Pantanjali's Yogasutra links Om to Yoga practice, as follows:
This verse highlights the importance of Om in the meditative practice of yoga, where it symbolizes the three worlds in the Self; the three times – past, present, and future eternity; the three divine powers – creation, preservation, and transformation in one Being; and three essences in one Spirit – immortality, omniscience, and joy. It is a symbol for the perfected Spiritual Man.
Tantrasāra
According to the Tantrasāra of Kr̥ṣṇānanda Āgamavāgīśa, a śūdra may not be initiated with a mantra beginning with Oṁ aka praṇava.
Jainism
thumb|Painting illustrating the Jain Om symbol, from Jaipur,
In Jainism, Om is considered a condensed form of reference to the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi by their initials A+A+A+U+M (').
The Dravyasamgraha quotes a Prakrit line:
By extension, the Om symbol is also used in Jainism to represent the first five lines of the Namokar mantra, the most important part of the daily prayer in the Jain religion, which honours the . These five lines are (in English): "(1.) veneration to the Arihants, (2.) veneration to the perfect ones, (3.) veneration to the masters, (4.) veneration to the teachers, (5.) veneration to all the monks in the world".
Buddhism
Om is often used as part of mantras and dharanis in Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions of Buddhism, such as East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. In East Asian Buddhist traditions like Chinese Buddhism, Om is often transliterated as the Chinese character (pinyin ) or (pinyin ).
Tibetan Buddhism and Vajrayana
thumb|The mantra [[Om mani padme hum written in Tibetan script on the petals of a sacred lotus around the syllable hrih at the center; Om is written on the top petal in white]]
In Tibetan Buddhism, Om is often placed at the beginning of mantras and dharanis. Probably the most well known mantra is "Om mani padme hum", the six syllable mantra of the Bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteśvara. This mantra is particularly associated with the four-armed form of Avalokiteśvara. Moreover, as a seed syllable (Bīja mantra), Om is considered sacred and holy in Esoteric Buddhism.
Some scholars interpret the first word of the mantra to be , with a meaning similar to Hinduism – the totality of sound, existence, and consciousness.
has been described by the 14th Dalai Lama as "composed of three pure letters, A, U, and M. These symbolize the impure body, speech, and mind of everyday unenlightened life of a practitioner; they also symbolize the pure exalted body, speech and mind of an enlightened Buddha". Om is a part of many mantras in Tibetan Buddhism and is a symbolism for wholeness, perfection, and the infinite.
Japanese Buddhism
thumb|Nio statues in Kyoto prefecture of Japan, are interpreted as saying the start (open mouth) and the end (closed mouth) of syllable "AUM" In Japanese [[Mikkyō Buddhism, the letters represent the beginning and the end of the universe.
The term a-un is used figuratively in some Japanese expressions as or , indicating an inherently harmonious relationship or nonverbal communication.
Niō guardian kings and komainu lion-dogs
The term is also used in Buddhist architecture and Shinto to describe the paired statues common in Japanese religious settings, most notably the Niō () and the komainu ().
Komainu, also called lion-dogs, found in Japan, Korea and China, also occur in pairs before Buddhist temples and public spaces, and again, one has an open mouth (), the other closed ().
Sikhism
thumb|upright=0.9|Ik Onkar of [[Sikhism]]
Ik Onkar (; iconically represented as ) are the first words of the Mul Mantar, which is the opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh scripture. Combining the numeral one ("Ik") and "Onkar", Ik Onkar literally means "one Om ";