New Zealand falcon

The New Zealand falcon (, kārewarewa, or kāiaia; Falco novaeseelandiae) is New Zealand's only falcon, and one of only four living native and two endemic birds of prey. It is frequently mistaken for the larger and more common swamp harrier. It is the country's most threatened bird of prey, with only around 5000–15000 individuals remaining. The kārearea was voted Bird of the Year winner in the annual Forest & Bird competition in 2012 and again in 2025.

right|thumb|New Zealand falcon (adult and young) from Buller's Birds of New Zealand, 1888

Taxonomy

The New Zealand falcon was formally described in 1788 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with the falcons and eagles in the genus Falco and coined the binomial name Falco novaeseelandiae. Gmelin based his description on the "New-Zealand falcon" that had been described and illustrated in 1781 by the English ornithologist John Latham. Latham had examined specimens both in the British Museum and in the Leverian Museum.

Ornithologists variously described the New Zealand falcon as an aberrant hobby or as allied to three South American species – F. deiroleucus (orange-breasted falcon), F. rufigularis (bat falcon), and F. femoralis (aplomado falcon); molecular phylogenetic studies show that it is most closely related to the aplomado falcon. Three forms are apparent from their significantly different sizes, with the larger 'eastern falcon' form in the eastern and central South Island, the smaller 'bush falcon' form in the central and south North Island, and an intermediary 'southern falcon' form in Fiordland, Stewart Island, and the Auckland Islands. The relationships between the distantly spaced populations of the southern form are uncertain. Although neutral genetic markers show a recent history of the two more distinct forms, the substantial size difference is likely to be driven by ecological adaptation as they occupy different habitats. Conservation management had already avoided mixing of the different populations. Males of the eastern form range in weight from , and the bush form ranges from . Females of the eastern form weigh between , and females of the bush form weigh between . The southern falcon weight sits between the eastern and bush forms. The legs are a dull yellow, which become vibrant for males during the breeding season. The southern falcon is found in the Auckland Islands, Stewart Island, and Fiordland in forest habitats near oceans, with ecological similarities to the bush falcon rather than the closer eastern falcon. The habitat range of the falcon has increased to include human-modified landscapes such as pine plantations in the North island and farmlands in the South Island. Falcons have been recorded living in or near exotic pine plantation stands since the 1990s, nesting in stands that are unplanted or less than 5 years old. Regeneration of other plants in older stands prevents the falcon from nesting on the ground. The home range of a falcon varies, with calculations from 200 km<sup>2</sup> to 15 km<sup>2</sup>, with dependence on food availability. Observations of captive falcons stooping rabbits and a cat were noted as playful or territorial rather than for hunting purposes. The most common avian prey includes introduced finch, lark, pipit, and thrush species, silvereyes, blackbirds, and the yellowhammer. Other avian prey include other passerines, waterfowl, seabirds (e.g., gulls), domestic poultry and gamebirds (e.g., ring-necked pheasants), parakeets, pigeons, and even herons. The falcon is adept at capturing introduced birds, with their make up in the prey composition being slightly higher than their proportional abundance. They also hunt skinks and hard-bodied insects like beetles, locusts, cicadas, and dragonflies. It also occasionally takes advantage of carrion (including fish) to get a quick meal. One was recorded feeding on the fruits of Styphelia nesophila. As the prey composition is closely related to the local species abundance, studies on the diet of the three forms come with slightly different results. The eastern falcon is recorded with a higher proportion of mammalian prey than the bush falcon. The southern falcon hunts forest birds as well as seabirds when they come in at dusk, and one was recorded eating a little blue penguin.

The New Zealand falcon has little competition for food as there are no native mammalian predators, and 2 other native birds of prey are nocturnal. They do compete with the swamp harrier, which searches for prey while flying. The competition reduces over winter when the swamp harrier relies more on carrion that the falcon does not eat. or during midday summer heats when the falcon is lethargic.

Intact seeds have been recorded in New Zealand falcon pellets previously, and were attributed to secondary consumption from eaten frugivorous birds, but there has been one observation of a falcon directly consuming an orange alpine fleshy fruit from Leucopogon fraseri. The faecal sac was examined and found to have intact seeds from that plant and another species, Gaultheria depressa. Captive falcons have also been observed to eat fruit given to them. The New Zealand falcon tends to stay in the same pair and breeding territory each breeding season. The distance between pairs varies from . Artificial nesting sites have been provided in vineyards for the New Zealand falcon as a pest control and conservation programme. In native podocarp forests bush falcons nest in epiphytes, tree cavities, and snags on mature trees, but will nest on a sheltered ground spot when these are absent. The ovoid eggs vary in colour, but are usually pale to very dark pink when first laid, and are around . Recorded deaths are mostly from electrocution, but also include other man-made hazards such as introduced cats, road hazards, shooting, poison, and window strike. Juvenile falcons make up a large proportion of these deaths. Falcons are also killed by swamp harriers, but these deaths are not recorded in proportion to their occurrence.

Falcons for Grapes programme

In 2005, funding was given by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry towards a programme that uses the falcons to control birds that damage grapes and act as pests in vineyards as well as monitoring the birds and establishing a breeding population in the vicinity of the Marlborough wine region. Initially, four falcons were relocated to the vineyards from the surrounding hills. After the release of a further 15 birds breeding began to occur – the first time it is thought to have happened since land clearance 150 years ago. The falcons are provided with predator-proof artificial nests and supplementary feeding. Breeding pairs within the vineyards are found to have higher nest attendance, brooding, and better feeding than in nearby natural habitats.

Illegal shooting

New Zealand falcon are fully protected under the Wildlife Act 1953. However, there are many reported instances of falcons being illegally shot. In the 1970s, two decades after being protected, it was estimated that at least 100 falcons were being shot in the South Island each year due to lack of public knowledge and similarity to the swamp harrier. A survey of 100 locals found that only one person knew that falcons were protected.

Electrocution threat

thumb|Electrocuted New Zealand falcon found at Glenorchy

Another ongoing threat to the birds from human activity is electrocution. Both a five-year radio tracking study The falcon was also seen as bold, assertive, and treacherous. The New Zealand falcon was observed by Māori for weather predictions, as its scream during fine weather foretold rain for the next day and its scream during rain foretold fine weather the next day.

The proverb "Me te kopae kārearea" or "like the nest of kārearea" means 'rarely seen'.

The New Zealand falcon features on the reverse of the New Zealand $20 note and has twice been used on New Zealand stamps. It was also featured on a collectable $5 coin in 2006.

The Royal New Zealand Air Force's aerobatic team is called the Black Falcons.

The kārearea was voted Bird of the Year winner in 2012. The Forest & Bird competition aims to raise awareness about New Zealand's native birds, their habitats, and the threats they face. The kārearea was again voted Bird of the Year in the 20th anniversary competition in 2025.

left|thumb|upright=2|New Zealand falcon in various phases of flight

Gallery

File:Fern kārearea landing Marlborough NZ.jpg|

File:New Zealand Falcon 07.jpg|

File:Falco_novaeseelandiae_Ken_Paterson_2.jpg|

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File:NZ Falcon - Karearea 03.JPG|

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References

Cited sources

External links

Wingspan Birds of Prey Trust – The national centre for the conservation, education and advocacy of birds of prey in New Zealand. Location: Rotorua, NZ.
Raptor Association of New Zealand
New Zealand Falcon New Zealand Birds Online
New Zealand falcon/Kārearea at Department of Conservation (New Zealand)
New Zealand Falcon at Birdlife International
New Zealand falcon at Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Assessment of the potential for the integration of New Zealand falcon conservation and vineyard pest management
Marlborough Falcon Conservation Trust
Raptor Alliance for New Zealand
New Zealand falcon discussed on RNZ Critter of the Week, 1 June 2018
New Zealand falcon discussed on RNZ Critter of the Week, 3 October 2025