thumb|A recruiting poster in [[New York City in June 1863 for the Enrollment Act, also known as the Civil War Military Draft Act, which authorized the federal government to conscript troops for the Union army]]
The New York City draft riots (July 13–16, 1863), sometimes referred to as the Manhattan draft riots and known at the time as Draft Week, were violent disturbances in Lower Manhattan, widely regarded as the culmination of working-class discontent with new laws passed by Congress that year to draft men to fight in the ongoing American Civil War. The protests turned into a race riot against African Americans by Irish American rioters. President Abraham Lincoln diverted several regiments of militia and volunteer troops after the Battle of Gettysburg to control the city. The official death toll was listed at either 119 or 120. One historian estimated a loss in killed and wounded of 1000, most of whom were of the mob, and a probable damage to private property of $1,500,000 (). According to another historian, 18 people are known to have been killed by the rioters, 11 of whom were Black. Conditions in the city were such that Major General John E. Wool, commander of the Department of the East, said on July 16 that "Martial law ought to be proclaimed, but I have not a sufficient force to enforce it." According to Toby Joyce, the riot represented a "civil war" within the city's Irish community, in that "mostly Irish American rioters confronted police, [while] soldiers, and pro-war politicians ... were also to a considerable extent from the local Irish immigrant community."
The military did not reach the city until the second day of rioting, by which time the mobs had ransacked or destroyed numerous public buildings, two Protestant churches, the homes of various abolitionists or sympathizers, many black homes, and the Colored Orphan Asylum at 44th Street and Fifth Avenue, which was burned to the ground. The area's demographics changed as a result of the riot. Many black residents left Manhattan permanently with many moving to Brooklyn. By 1865, the black population had fallen below 11,000 for the first time since 1820. In addition, upstate textile mills processed cotton in manufacturing. New York had such strong business connections to the South that on January 7, 1861, Mayor Fernando Wood, a Democrat, called on the city's Board of Aldermen to "declare the city's independence from Albany and from Washington"; he said it "would have the whole and united support of the Southern States."
The city was also a continuing destination of immigrants. Since the 1840s, most were from Ireland and Germany. In 1860, nearly 25 percent of the New York City population was German-born, and many did not speak English. During the 1840s and 1850s, journalists had published sensational accounts, directed at the white working class, dramatizing the evils of interracial socializing, relationships, and marriages. Reformers joined the effort.
The crowd threw large paving stones through windows, burst through the doors, and set the building ablaze. When the fire department responded, rioters broke up their vehicles. Others killed horses that were pulling streetcars and smashed the cars. To prevent other parts of the city being notified of the riot, rioters cut telegraph lines. The police were badly outnumbered and unable to quell the riots, but they kept the rioting out of Lower Manhattan below Union Square. The 19th Company/1st Battalion US Army Invalid Corps which was part of the Provost Guard tried to disperse the mob with a volley of gunfire but were overwhelmed and suffered over 14 injured with 1 soldier missing (believed killed).
thumb|Bull's Head Hotel, depicted in 1830, was burned after it refused to serve alcohol to the rioters.
thumb|upright|Attack on the [[New-York Tribune|Tribune building]]
thumb|right|The Colored Orphan Asylum which was burned.
thumb|right|upright|Rioters attacking a building on [[Lexington Avenue.]]
thumb|Depiction of [[Lynching in the United States|lynching during the New York City draft riots in 1863]]
The Bull's Head hotel on 44th Street, which refused to provide alcohol to the rioters, was burned. The mayor's residence on Fifth Avenue was spared by words of Judge George Gardner Barnard, and the crowd of about 500 turned to another location of pillage. The Eighth and Fifth District police stations, and other buildings were attacked and set on fire. Other targets included the office of The New York Times. The mob was turned back at the Times office by staff manning Gatling guns, including Times founder Henry Jarvis Raymond. Fire engine companies responded, but some firefighters were sympathetic to the rioters because they had also been drafted on Saturday. The New York Tribune was attacked, being looted and burned; not until police arrived and extinguished the flames was the crowd dispersed. children, was attacked by a mob at around 4 pm. A mob of several thousand, including many women and children, looted the building of its food and supplies. However, the police were able to secure the orphanage for enough time to allow the orphans to escape before the building burned down. They also attacked white "amalgamationists", such as Ann Derrickson and Ann Martin, two white women who were married to black men, and Mary Burke, a white prostitute who catered to black men.
Governor Horatio Seymour arrived on Tuesday and spoke at City Hall, where he attempted to assuage the crowd by proclaiming that the Enrollment Act was unconstitutional. General John E. Wool, commander of the Eastern District, brought approximately 800 soldiers and Marines in from forts in New York Harbor, West Point, and the Brooklyn Navy Yard. He ordered the militias to return to New York.
Thursday
Order began to be restored on July 16. The New York State Militia and some federal troops were returned to New York, including the 152nd New York Volunteers, the 26th Michigan Volunteers, the 27th Indiana Volunteers and the 7th Regiment New York State Militia from Frederick, Maryland, after a forced march. In addition, the governor sent in the 74th and 65th regiments of the New York State Militia, which had not been in federal service, and a section of the 20th Independent Battery, New York Volunteer Artillery from Fort Schuyler in Throggs Neck. The New York State Militia units were the first to arrive. There were several thousand militia and Federal troops in the city.
The New York Times reported on Thursday that Plug Uglies and Blood Tubs gang members from Baltimore, as well as "Scuykill Rangers and other rowdies of Philadelphia", had come to New York during the unrest to participate in the riots alongside the Dead Rabbits and "Mackerelvillers". The Times editorialized that "the scoundrels cannot afford to miss this golden opportunity of indulging their brutal natures, and at the same time serving their colleagues the Copperheads and secesh [secessionist] sympathizers."
Aftermath
The exact death toll during the New York draft riots is unknown, but according to historian James M. McPherson, 119 or 120 people were killed, although other estimates list the death toll as high as 1,200. Violence by longshoremen against black men was especially fierce in the docks area:
In all, eleven black men and boys were hanged over five days. Among the murdered black people was the seven-year-old Bermudian nephew, Joseph Reed, of Robert John Simmons of the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment, whose account of fighting in South Carolina, written on the approach to Fort Wagner July 18, 1863, was to be published in the New York Tribune on December 23, 1863 (Simmons having died in August of wounds received in the attack on Fort Wagner).
The most reliable estimates indicate at least 2,000 people were injured. Herbert Asbury, the author of the 1928 book Gangs of New York, upon which the 2002 film was based, puts the figure much higher, at 2,000 killed and 8,000 wounded, a number that some dispute. Total property damage was about $1–5 million (equivalent to $ – $ in ). The city treasury later indemnified one-quarter of the amount.
Historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote that the riots were "equivalent to a Confederate victory".
While the rioting mainly involved the white working class, middle and upper-class New Yorkers had split sentiments on the draft and use of federal power or martial law to enforce it. Many wealthy Democratic businessmen sought to have the draft declared unconstitutional. Tammany Democrats did not seek to have the draft declared unconstitutional, but they helped pay the commutation fees for those who were drafted.
In December 1863, the Union League Club recruited more than 2,000 black soldiers, outfitted and trained them, honoring and sending men off with a parade through the city to the Hudson River docks in March 1864. A crowd of 100,000 watched the procession, which was led by police and members of the Union League Club.
New York's support for the Union cause continued, however grudgingly, and gradually Southern sympathies declined in the city. New York banks eventually financed the Civil War, and the state's industries were more productive than those of the entire Confederacy. By the end of the war, more than 450,000 soldiers, sailors, and militia had enlisted from New York State, which was the most populous state at the time. A total of 46,000 military men from New York State died during the war, more from disease than wounds—as was typical during the war.
Order of battle
New York Metropolitan Police Department
New York Metropolitan Police Department under the command of Superintendent John A. Kennedy.<br />Commissioners Thomas Coxon Acton and John G. Bergen took command when Kennedy was seriously injured by a mob during the early stages of the riots.<br />
Of the NYPD Officers there were four fatalities: one was killed and three died of injuries
{| class="wikitable"
!Precinct
!Commander
!Location
!Strength
!Notes
|-
|1st Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Jacob B. Warlow
|align="center"|29 Broad Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 63 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|2nd Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Nathaniel R. Mills
|align="center"|49 Beekman Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 60 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|3rd Precinct
|align="center"|Captain James Greer
|align="center"|160 Chambers Street
|align="center"|3 sergeants, 64 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|4th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain James Bryan
|align="center"|9 Oak Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 70 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|5th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Jeremiah Petty
|align="center"|49 Leonard Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 61 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|6th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain John Jourdan
|align="center"|9 Franklin Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 63 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|7th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain William Jamieson
|align="center"|247 Madison Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 52 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|8th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Morris DeCamp
|align="center"|126 Wooster Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 52 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|9th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Jacob L. Sebring
|align="center"|94 Charles Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 51 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|10th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Thaddeus C. Davis
|align="center"|Essex Market
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 62 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|11th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain John I. Mount
|align="center"|Union Market
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 56 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|12th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Theron R. Bennett
|align="center"|126th Street (near Third Avenue)
|align="center"|5 sergeants, 41 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|13th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Thomas Steers
|align="center"|Attorney Street (at corner of Delancey Street)
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 63 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|14th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain John J. Williamson
|align="center"|53 Spring Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 58 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|15th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Charles W. Caffery
|align="center"|220 Mercer Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 69 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|16th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Henry Hedden
|align="center"|156 West 20th Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 50 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|17th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Samuel Brower
|align="center"|First Avenue (at the corner of Fifth Street)
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 56 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|18th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain John Cameron
|align="center"|22nd Street (near Second Avenue)
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 74 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|19th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Galen T. Porter
|align="center"|59th Street (near Third Avenue)
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 49 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|20th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain George W. Walling
|align="center"|212 West 35th Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 59 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|21st Precinct
|align="center"|Sergeant Cornelius Burdick (acting Captain)
|align="center"|120 East 31st Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 51 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|22nd Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Johannes C. Slott
|align="center"|47th Street (between Eighth and Ninth Avenues)
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 54 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|23rd Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Henry Hutchings
|align="center"|86th Street (near Fourth Avenue)
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 42 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|24th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain James Todd
|align="center"|New York waterfront
|align="center"|2 sergeants and 20 patrolmen
|align="center"|Headquartered on Police Steamboat No. 1
|-
|25th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Theron Copeland <!-- The name is spelled "Theron T. Copeland" in Costello's "Our Police Protectors". -->
|align="center"|300 Mulberry Street
|align="center"|1 Sergeant, 38 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|Headquarters of the Broadway Squad.
|-
|26th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Thomas W. Thorne
|align="center"|City Hall
|align="center"|1 Sergeant, 66 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|27th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain John C. Helme
|align="center"|117 Cedar Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 52 patrolmen, and 3 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|28th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain John F. Dickson
|align="center"|550 Greenwich Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 48 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|29th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Francis C. Speight
|align="center"|29th Street (near Fourth Avenue)
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 82 patrolmen, and 3 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|30th Precinct
|align="center"|Captain James Z. Bogart
|align="center"|86th Street and Bloomingdale Road
|align="center"|2 sergeants, 19 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|
|-
|32nd Precinct
|align="center"|Captain Alanson S. Wilson
|align="center"|Tenth Avenue and 152nd Street
|align="center"|4 sergeants, 35 patrolmen, and 2 doormen
|align="center"|Mounted police
|}
New York State Militia
1st Division: Major General Charles W. Sandford
{| class="wikitable"
!Unit
!Commander
!Complement
!Officers
!Other ranks
|-
|65th Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel William F. Berens
|align="center"|401
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|-
|74th Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Watson A. Fox
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|-
|20th Independent Battery
|align="center"|Captain B. Franklin Ryer
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|}
Unorganized Militia:
{| class="wikitable"
!Unit
!Commander
!Complement
!Officers
!Remarks
|-
|Veteran Corps of Artillery
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|Guarded State Arsenal from rioters
|-
|}
Union army
Department of the East: Major General John E. Wool headquartered in New York
Defenses of New York City: Brevet Brigadier General Harvey Brown, Brig. General Edward R. S. Canby
- Artillery: Captain Henry F. Putnam, 12th United States Infantry Regiment.
- Provost marshals tasked with overseeing the initial enforcement of the draft:
- Provost Marshal General U.S.A.: Colonel James Fry
- Provost Marshal General New York City: Colonel Robert Nugent (During the first day of rioting on July 13, 1863, in command of the Invalid Corps: 1st Battalion)
Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton authorized five regiments from Gettysburg, mostly federalized state militia and volunteer units from the Army of the Potomac, to reinforce the New York City Police Department. By the end of the riots, there were more than 4,000 soldiers garrisoned in the troubled area.
{| class="wikitable"
!Unit
!Commander
!Complement
!Officers
!Notes
|-
|Invalid Corps
|
|
|
|1st and 2nd Battalions; just over 9 companies. (15th and 19th Companies 1st Battalion VRC & 1st Company 21st VRC Regiment) Over 16 injured; 1 killed 1 missing
|-
|26th Michigan Volunteer Infantry Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Judson S. Farrar
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="left"|
|-
|5th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Cleveland Winslow
|align="center"|50
|align="center"|
|align="center"|Returning to New York in May 1863, the original regiment was mustered out after its two-year enlistment period. However, after having subsequently reorganized the 5th New York Infantry as a veteran battalion on May 25, Winslow was recalled to New York City to suppress the New York City draft riots the following month. Winslow Commanded a small force consisting of 50 men from his regiment as well as 200 volunteers under a Major Robinson and two howitzers of Col. Jardine
|-
|7th New York National Guard Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Marshall Lefferts
|align="center"|800
|align="center"|
|align="left"|Recalled back to New York; on the way, one Private drowned. On July 16, 1863, during a skirmish with rioters, the regimental casualties were one Private received a buckshot in the back of the hand and two Privates had their coats cut by bullets
|-
|8th New York National Guard Regiment
|align="center"|Brigadier General Charles C. Dodge
|align="center"|150
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|-
|9th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Edward E. Jardine (wounded)
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="left"|Regiment had been mustered out in May 1863 but 200 volunteered to serve again during the draft riots
|-
|11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Henry O'Brien (killed)
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="left"|Original regiment mustered out on June 2, 1862. Colonel O'Brien was in the process of recruiting at the time of the draft riots. The regiment was never brought back to strength and enlisted members were transferred to 17th Veteran Infantry.
|-
|11th U.S. Regular Infantry Regiment
|Colonel Erasmus D. Keyes
|
|
|In the fall of 1863 the Regular infantry, with other commands from the Army of the Potomac, were sent to New York City to preserve order during the next draft. The 11th Infantry encamped on the East River, across the street and to the north of Jones' Wood garden. When the purpose for which the troops were sent to New York had been accomplished, they were ordered back to the front.
|-
|13th New York Volunteer Cavalry Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Charles E. Davies
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="left"|Regiment suffered 2 fatalities during the riots.
|-
|14th New York Volunteer Cavalry Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Thaddeus P. Mott
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="left"|All cavalry regiments in New York City were eventually put under the command of General Judson Kilpatrick who volunteered his services on July 17
|-
|17th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment
|align="center"|Major T. W. C. Grower
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="left"| Regimental losses during the Draft Riots totaled 4; they were 1 enlisted man killed and 1 officer and 2 enlisted men wounded {recovered}
|-
|22nd New York National Guard Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Lloyd Aspinwall
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|-
|47th New York State Militia/National Guard Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Jeremiah V. Messerole
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|-
|152nd New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel Alonso Ferguson
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|align="center"|
|-
|14th Indiana Infantry Regiment
|align="center"|Colonel John Coons
|
|
|
|}
In popular culture
Fiction
- Wilderness: A Tale of the Civil War (1961) by Robert Penn Warren
- The Banished Children of Eve, A Novel of Civil War New York (1995) by Peter Quinn
- My Notorious Life: A Novel (2014) by Kate Manning
- On Secret Service (2000) by John Jakes
- Paradise Alley (2003) by Kevin Baker
- New York: the Novel (2009) by Edward Rutherfurd
- Grant Comes East (2004) by Newt Gingrich
- Last Descendants (2016) by Matthew J. Kirby
- Riot (2009) by Walter Dean Myers
- A Wish After Midnight (2008) by Zetta Elliott, speculative fiction set in Brooklyn alternating between the early 21st century and 1863.
- Libertie (2021) by Kaitlyn Greenidge
- Moon and the Mars (2021) by Kia Corthron
- Booth (2021) by Karen Joy Fowler
- How to Dodge a Cannonball (2025) by Dennard Dayle
Television, theatre and film
- The short-lived 1968 Broadway musical Maggie Flynn was set in the Tobin Orphanage for black children (modeled on the Colored Orphan Asylum).
- Gangs of New York (2002), a film directed by Martin Scorsese, includes a fictionalized portrayal of the New York Draft Riots in its finale.
- Paradise Square (2018), a musical that had its Broadway debut in 2022, depicts events that led up to and included the New York Draft Riots.
- Copper (2012), a BBC America television series about the Five Points in New York City in 1864-1865, has flashbacks to the riots and the lynchings which took place in the area.
See also
- 1862 Brooklyn riot
- Fishing Creek Confederacy
- History of New York City (1855–1897)
- List of ethnic riots#United States
- List of expulsions of African Americans
- List of identities in The Gangs of New York § Draft riots
- List of incidents of civil unrest in New York City
- List of incidents of civil unrest in the United States
- List of massacres in the United States
- Lynching in the United States
- Mass racial violence in the United States
- Opposition to the American Civil War
- Racism against Black Americans
- Racism in the United States
Notes
References
Bibliography
- <!-- publisher info, pages needed -->
- Headley, Joel Tyler (1873). <!-- pg=3 --> The Great Riots of New York, 1712 to 1863 – including and full and complete account of the Four Days' Draft Riot of 1863. E.B. Treat (publisher), stereotyped at the Women's Printing House
Further reading
- Anbinder, Tyler. "Which Poor Man’s Fight?: Immigrants and the Federal Conscription of 1863." Civil War History 52.4 (2006): 344–372.
- Barrett, Ross. "On Forgetting: Thomas Nast, the Middle Class, and the Visual Culture of the Draft Riots." Prospects 29 (2005): 25–55. online
- Cohen, Joanna (2022). "Reckoning with the Riots: Property, Belongings, and the Challenge to Value in Civil War America". Journal of American History. 109 (1): 68–98.
- Geary, James W. "Civil War Conscription in the North: a historiographical review." Civil War History 32.3 (1986): 208–228.
- Hauptman, Laurence M. "John E. Wool and the New York City draft riots of 1863: a reassessment." Civil War History 49.4 (2003): 370–387.
- Joyce, Toby. "The New York draft riots of 1863: an Irish civil war?" History Ireland 11.2 (2003): 22–27. online
- Lanham, Andrew J. "'Protection for Every Class of Citizens': The New York City Draft Riots of 1863, the Equal Protection Clause, and the Government's Duty to Protect Civil Rights" . UC Irvine Law Review, Vol. 13, Issue 4 (2023): 1067-1118.
- Man Jr., Albon P. "Labor competition and the New York draft riots of 1863." Journal of Negro History 36.4 (1951): 375–405. On Black role. online
- Moss, Hilary. "All the World's New York, All New York’sa Stage: Drama, Draft Riots, and Democracy in the Mid-Nineteenth Century" Journal of Urban History (2009) 35#7 pp. 1067–1072;
- Perri, Timothy J. “The Economics of US Civil War Conscription.” American Law and Economics Review 10#2 (2008), pp. 424–53. online
- Peterson, Carla L. "African Americans and the New York Draft Riots: Memory and Reconciliation in America’s Civil War." Nanzan review of American studies: a journal of Center for American Studies v27 (2005): 1–14. online
- Quigley, David. Second Founding: New York City, Reconstruction, and the Making of American Democracy (Hill and Wang, 2004) excerpt
- Quinn, Peter. 1995 Banished Children of Eve: A Novel of Civil War New York. New York: Fordham University Press (fictional account of Draft Riots)
- Rutkowski, Alice. "Gender, genre, race, and nation: The 1863 New York City draft riots." Studies in the Literary Imagination 40.2 (2007): 111+.
- Walkowitz, Daniel J. "‘The Gangs of New York’: The mean streets in history." History Workshop Journal 56#1 (2003) online.
- Wells, Jonathan Daniel. "Inventing White Supremacy: Race, Print Culture, and the Civil War Draft Riots." Civil War History 68.1 (2022): 42–80.
- Werstein, Irving. July 1863. Ace Books, 1957.
Primary sources
- Dupree, A. Hunter and Leslie H. Fishel, Jr. "An Eyewitness Account of the New York Draft Riots, July, 1863", Mississippi Valley Historical Review vol. 47, no. 3 (December 1960), pp. 472–79. In JSTOR
- New York Evangelist (1830–1902); July 23, 1863; pp. 30, 33; APS Online, pg. 4.
- online
External links
- "1863 New York City Draft Riots", mrlincolnandnewyork.org
- "New York Draft Riots", 2002, source Civil War Society's Civil War Encyclopedia, Civil War Home website
- "New York Draft Riots", First Edition Harper's News Report, sonofthesouth.net
- New York Divided: Slavery and the Civil War Online Exhibit, New York Historical Society, (November 17, 2006 – September 3, 2007, physical exhibit)
- Report of the Committee of merchants for the relief of colored people, suffering from the late riots in the city of New York. New York: G. A. Whitehorne, 1863, African American Pamphlet Collection, Library of Congress.