The Mutapa Empire – also referred to as Mwenemutapa or Munhumutapa, (, ) – was an African empire in Zimbabwe, which expanded to what is now modern-day Mozambique, Botswana, Malawi, and Zambia.thumb|Map of trade centres and routes in precolonial Zimbabwe.thumb|250px|A sixteenth-century Portuguese map of Monomotapa lying in the interior of southern Africa.
The Portuguese term Monomotapa is a transliteration of the Shona royal title Mwenemutapa derived from a combination of two words, Mwene meaning "Lord" and Mutapa meaning "conquered land". Over time the monarch's royal title was applied to the kingdom as a whole, and used to denote the kingdom's territory on maps from the period.
Geography
The Mutapa Empire was situated on the northern part of the Zimbabwean Plateau, which borders the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers and valleys to the north and south respectively, the Indian Ocean in the east, and the Kalahari Desert to the west. Several rivers traverse the Plateau, including the Save, Pungwe, and Runde. The Plateau largely consists of savanna-woodland with and trees on higher ground, and and on lower ground. The Plateau is inhabited by elephants, lions, leopards, and deer, among others. Shona tradition says that some Karanga from Great Zimbabwe migrated slowly to the northern Zimbabwean Plateau. Accordingly, an elephant hunter in Shangwe named Mutota gained prominence, and took interest in trade along the Zambezi, while also finding salt in . Accordingly the Karanga made alliances and intermarried with the Tonga and Tavara, and via influencing succession disputes they increased their power in the region. Mutota is said to have been an hunter-warrior in the militaristic clan, which he led to conquer Dande. He established the capital of the nascent Mutapa Kingdom at Chitako- Hill where he built a stone enclosure (), and he distributed land and administrative positions to his allies. Mutota is said to have extended his rule over (a territory to the south) before his death. Archaeological research has however shown Mutapa to have been a northward extension of Great Zimbabwe. According to Diogo de Alcáçova's 1506 account, Changamire was an influential Mutapa governor and member of the Torwa dynasty who Mukombero ordered to undertake a poison trial due to rumours of him seeking the kingship. Accordingly, c. 1490 Changamire led an army to Mukombwe's and killed him, afterwards assuming the kingship. He is also said to have killed 21 of Mukombwe's sons, with Chikuyo Chisamarengu being the only one to escape.
Relations between Mutapa and the Portuguese continued to be amicable, and in the 1580s the Portuguese established several (marketplaces) outside of the Zambezi Valley on the Zimbabwean Plateau. The most important was Masapa, and the Portuguese captain there took on one of the 's roles as "captain of the gates" of Mutapa, being subordinate to the and referred to as a 'great wife'.
In 1631, having allied Muslims who Mavhura was in the process of expelling, Kapararidze's forces caught him by surprise and routed the Mavhura-Portuguese army, capturing several key figures, though not Mavhura. Kapararidze offered peace if Mavhura acknowledged him as , though Mavhura refused. Kapararidze incited Africans in the Zambezi Valley to rise up against Portuguese settlers, who fled to Tete, Sena, and the . In 1632, a Portuguese captain led an army to subdue the Valley from Quelimane to Sena, and conquered Manyika. Meanwhile, Mavhura and a Portuguese friar recruited a large army, paid for in cloth, and managed to defeat Kapararidze's forces. With the help of the , Kapararidze regrouped to face Mavhura again, though he had been reinforced by the Portuguese captain. Together they soundly defeated Kapararidze, leaving the Portuguese as the main power on the Plateau, which was maintained by exploiting divisions between Mavhura's faction and the remnants of Kapararidze's. Though missions caused some Shona to convert, they remained only nominal Christians, and the Shona traditional worldview persevered. Women were more amenable to conversion because Christianity emphasised monogamy, increasing their status. Shona religious leaders however likely rejected Mavhura, making him even more reliant on Portuguese force. In 1634, the land around Tete was divided into , which were then granted to Portuguese settlers. Over the course of the 17th century, were established as far south as Rimuka, and their holders were incorporated into Shona political systems as (provincial chiefs) who prioritised profit above all else (including allegiance to the Portuguese Crown). Despite undertaking several digging expeditions in Chikova, Shona guides proved unhelpful, and the Portuguese were unable to find any silver mines. In response to rumours Kapararidze was amassing an army north of the Zambezi, the Portuguese garrisoned Mavhura's . -holders and Portuguese traders employed private armies and raided Mutapa vassals for cattle and slaves. Gold mining in Mutapa was largely abandoned out of fear. though others such as Catrien Van Waarden and David Beach thought it to have been a dynastic name, and Van Waarden says that Changamire I may have been the founder of the lineage that produced Changamire Dombo. The system involved someone loaning their cattle to another, who was permitted to keep the cattle's product and profit from it, but not to dispose of the cattle, effectively constituting vassalage. to conquer the Kingdom of Butua, whose may have been in a weakened position since Butua's civil war. Several short reigns followed, and the conflict spread to repel the that had encroached on Mutapa's territory during Mupunzagutu's reign.
The royal court included the (Council), which consisted of the 's ministers and advisors (appointed by him personally, sometimes from specific families). The was the Chief Minister and the second most powerful figure in the state. Stan Mudenge wrote that the holder of the position was likely a prince, and that its description as "governor of the kingdoms/provinces" may mean the holder liaised with provincial governors, or that he had a role in appointing their successors. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the house lost their position as Chief Minister, and instead became guardians of the royal graves along with other royal houses. The (heir) became the second most powerful figure, while the position of Chief Minister went to the house and clan in the 18th and 19th centuries respectively. The was the supreme commander of Mutapa's forces, though the state did not have a standing army. After Nyambo Kaparidze (of the house) lost the kingship to Mavura in the 17th century, the position of supreme commander primarily went to the clan, and was held by the in the 19th century. The (a position held by a Tavara) was the Chief Steward and treasurer, and was in charge of royal finances and appointing the . The position of was held by the 's son-in-law, who served as the king's loyal right-hand man. Other important offices present at the royal court included the Chief Musician (in charge of the court musicians), the Chief Door-Keeper (), the Chief /Diviner (), and another priest titled (the latter two were held by Tavaras due to them being , "owners of the soil"). Family members such as the 's mother, uncles, and princes () could also attend court and offer advice. Minor positions included bodyguards/executioners, musicians, dancers, praise singers, cooks, and pages (who were the sons of provincial rulers).
While the institution was being developed in the early years of the Mutapa state, so was the -Karuva cult among the Tavara. According to tradition, Karuva was a member of the clan and famous rainmaker-priest of the (God) cult who resisted Matope's conquest, and was said to have drowned in Nyamakate pool. The pool was near to the Mitimichena shrine (controlled by the clan), which either continued to be or became the centre of the cult,