right|thumb|300px|Outer wall of Group B of Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo)
right|thumb|300px|View of Group A of Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo)
Mixco Viejo () ("Old Mixco"), occasionally called Jilotepeque Viejo, is an archaeological site in the north east of the Chimaltenango department of Guatemala, some to the north of Guatemala City and from the junction of the rivers Pixcaya and Motagua. It is a moderate sized ruined city of the Postclassic Maya civilization.
The archaeological site and tourist attraction of Mixco Viejo was named after being erroneously associated with the Postclassic Poqomam capital referred to in colonial records by that name. The archaeological site has now been identified as Jilotepeque Viejo, the capital of the Chajoma kingdom. To distinguish between the two, the ruins of the Chajoma capital are now referred to as Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) while the former Poqomam capital is referred to as Mixco Viejo (Chinautla Viejo).
This confusion in the identification of the site has hindered study. The Chajoma capital has been investigated archaeologically, under the assumption that it was the Poqomam capital. Although the Chajoma ruins of Jilotepeque Viejo have been well described archaeologically, the archaeological data has been associated with the history of a different site entirely. Doubts about the identification of the archaeological site were first raised by Robert M. Carmack, who realised that the supposed Poqomam capital was not located within the Poqomam linguistic area but rather within the linguistic area of the Kaqchikels. The Poqomam who were settled in the new colonial settlement of Mixco by the Spanish had a long history of fine polychrome ceramic production, but no evidence of such production had been recovered during archaeological investigations, and the ruins were considered too distant from colonial Mixco.
Chinautla Viejo was attacked by the invading Spanish in 1525; the first two attacks against the heavily fortified city were unsuccessful. The besieged city received Poqomam reinforcements that were comprehensively defeated on an open field of battle, with the Spanish cavalry being decisive. The capture of Poqomam prisoners allowed the Spanish to discover the location of a cave providing a secret entrance to the city. A third assault broke the month-long siege, allowing the Spanish to take the city. The surviving inhabitants were moved to another settlement and Pedro de Alvarado ordered the city to be burned.
Jilotepeque Viejo was settled by the Chajoma in order to provide a capital that was safer from attack from the hostile Iximche Kaqchikel kingdom than their previous capital. In spite of this, the city fell under the domination of Iximche and the city's architecture, spread in a number of fortified groups along a ridge surrounded by deep ravines, shows a mixture of Chajoma and Kaqchikel styles. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Chajoma of Jilotepeque Viejo may have initially allied themselves with the Spanish together with Iximche and have joined in the general Kaqchikel uprising against the Spanish in 1524. The site was abandoned after the conquest and never reoccupied.
Mixco Viejo in history: Chinautla Viejo
The historical Mixco Viejo has been identified as Chinautla Viejo ("Old Chinautla"), near the modern town of Mixco. Mixco Viejo ("Old Mixco") was the capital of the Poqomam Maya kingdom, and was founded on a defensive mountain-top location in the 12th century AD. The peak population in the early 16th century may have been around 10,000 people.
In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent a small company to conquer Mixco Viejo (Chinautla Viejo), the capital of the Poqomam. At the Spanish approach, the inhabitants remained enclosed in the fortified city. The Spanish attempted an approach from the west through a narrow pass but were forced back with heavy losses. Alvarado himself launched the second assault with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back. The Poqomam then received reinforcements, possibly from Chinautla, and the two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city. The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry, forcing the Poqomam reinforcements to withdraw. The leaders of the reinforcements surrendered to the Spanish three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave leading up from a nearby river, allowing the inhabitants to come and go.
Armed with the knowledge gained from their prisoners, Alvarado sent 40 men to cover the exit from the cave and launched another assault along the ravine from the west, in single file owing to its narrowness, with crossbowmen alternating with soldiers bearing muskets, each with a companion sheltering him from arrows and stones with a shield. This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through the pass and storm the entrance of the city. The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city, and were hunted down by the victorious conquistadors and their Mesoamerican allies. Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave, the survivors were captured and brought back to the city. The siege had lasted more than a month and because of the defensive strength of the city, Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco. and have suggested that its identification as the historical Mixco Viejo is the result of confusion in the interpretation of colonial records. The site was apparently known to the Chajoma by a variety of names, including Chuapec Kekacajol Nima Abaj (also spelt Chuwa Pek Q'eqak'ajol Nima Ab'aj), meaning "Great stone in front of the Cave of the Children of Night", Zakicajol and Nimcakajpec. Jilotepeque Viejo is estimated to have had a population of approximately 1,500 inhabitants.
Location
The ruins are situated at the northeastern extreme of the department of Chimaltenango within the municipality of San Martín Jilotepeque; The site is from Guatemala City by road.
History
Known rulers
All dates are approximate.
{|class="wikitable"
! Name !! Ruled !! Alternative names
|-
|Lajuj No'j
|c.1450–c.1480
|Ichalkan Chi Kumkwat, Ychal Amollac Chicumcuat
|-
|Achi Q'alel
|early 16th century moved to Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) from Ochal to make their capital more inaccessible to their hostile neighbours. In spite of this, Iximche defeated the Chajoma and Jilotepeque Viejo became subject to the Kaqchikel kingdom. Groups C and E show Kaqchikel influence in their architectural styles, while groups A and B have a purer Chajoma architectural style. Both ballcourts appear to have been remodelled after the Kaqchikel fashion, with thick coatings of stucco.
Around the 13th century, Group A underwent a major remodelling, including the construction of a new retaining wall and the infilling of the wide area between the old and new walls, creating a much expanded terrace for the construction of the group's architecture. Shortly before the Spanish Conquest, the Chajoma under their lord Achi Q'alel rebelled against the Kaqchikels of Iximche. The site was abandoned after the Spanish conquest and the inhabitants were moved by the Spanish to San Martín Jilotepeque, after which the area was never reoccupied.
Modern history
German geographer Karl Sapper visited the ruins in 1896 and published a brief description of the ruins together with a site map two years later in a 6-page pamphlet by the Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie of Leyden in the Netherlands, entitled Die Ruinen von Mixco, Guatemala. It was Sapper who labelled each of the archaeological groups and their attendant structures. American archaeologist A. Ledyard Smith visited the ruins in 1949 and wrote a chapter about the site in his Archaeological Reconnaissance in Central America, published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1955. Archeological excavations were carried out from 1954 through 1967 by the Musée de l'Homme of Paris under the direction of archaeologist Henri Lehmann, who certainly believed that he was excavating the Pocomam capital as described in Colonial records.
Although the site was restored during the archaeological investigations, it suffered considerable damage in the 1976 Guatemala earthquake. This resulted in destruction of some of the restoration work, although some of the damage has now been repaired.
Site description
thumb|left|300px|Map of the ruins of Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo)
The ruins consist of 15 groups containing the remains of over 120 major structures, including temples, palaces, and courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame.
The relatively short period of occupation at Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) led to an unusual unity of architectural styles for a Mesoamerican city. Stone sculpture is almost totally absent from the city, the only example being a ballcourt marker in the form of a serpent's head with jaws agape and a human head emerging from its mouth. Originally some buildings were decorated with painted stucco but this is so poorly preserved that only a few fragments remain.
Architectural groups
The architecture is divided into a number of groups and subgroups, labelled by archaeologists as Groups A through to L; those subgroups belonging to Groups A, B, C and E that fall outside the city walls are indicated with the addition of an X or an apostrophe after the group name, to give Group A-X, Group B-X, Group C' and Group E'.
Group A
thumb|Pyramid A1, one of the principal structures of Group A
Group A is located on the northern end of the ridge. The group was extended during major remodelling work that included the building of the final versions of Platforms A2 and A3 on the north side; this involved building a new retaining wall some further north, east and southeast and filling in the area between the new and old walls to create a greatly expanded terrace. Traces of charcoal at the base of the old retaining wall have been radiocarbon dated to the 13th century, indicating that the expansion of Group A took place no earlier than that.
Pyramid A1 is one of the principal structures of Group A, together with the ballcourt. The pyramid is high and measures at the base. It was built using cut stone and has four stepped levels, each of which terminates in a cornice. The pyramid faces west onto the plaza and has two access stairways with 27 steps each. The stairways are flanked by smooth balustrades built from well-fitted slabs. The summit of the pyramid supports a high platform that once formed the base for the summit temple. The pyramid was built over another structure, a stucco platform with two levels, the upper of which terminated in a cornice.
Platform A2 is built along the edge of the retaining wall behind Pyramid A1. It faces west towards the pyramid and has two access stairways. Three successive versions of the platform were built, each overlying the previous. The earliest version sat upon the early retaining wall, as did the second version. The final version was much larger and was built after the new retaining wall had extended the available area for Group A. It faces south onto the plaza and was accessed via two stairways on that side. The platform was built over an earlier structure that was built on top of an early tiered retaining wall; the earlier structure extended above the retaining wall.
Platform A4 divides the Group A plaza in two. It was a later addition to Group A during the reorganisation of the group that involved the destruction of the earlier building under Platform A5. When excavated it was very poorly reserved but was able to be reliably restored. There was no earlier version of the structure; it consists of a platform with two levels that faces east towards the principal architecture of Group A. The upper level is topped with a cornice and access was via two stairways flanked by balustrades.
Platform A5 closes the north side of the Group A plaza. The platform has two levels upon a base and a cornice terminating the walls. The platform faces south towards the plaza and ballcourt. The platform was accessed via four stairways, each with nine steps; they were flanked by steep ramps or balustrades. The visible version of Platform A5 covers the remains of an earlier structure. Two funerary urns were excavated from the earlier platform.
thumb|left|Platform A5, with Platform A6 behind
Platform A6 encloses the western extreme of the Group A plaza. Four funerary urns were found associated with the platform, mostly interred under the front of the building.
Platform A9 is to the east of the ballcourt (A11) and faces towards it. It had four access stairways set between corniced balustrades; each stairway had nine steps. The walls were built of small stone slabs and have a slight slope; as is common with the architecture of Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo), the walls were topped with vertical cornices. However, the end zone walls are all completely vertical. Fragments of stucco recovered around the ballcourt indicate that it was at least partly coated.
Structure A14 was a residential structure immediately northeast of Platform A5. A stairway with 28 steps descends the Group B retaining wall behind the northeast corner of the double pyramid, providing an access route towards Group D. On the north side of the group another stairway, with 18 steps divided into two flights, descends towards Group A.
Ballcourt B1 is immediately south of the Group B plaza, with the northern entrance to the ballcourt directly accessing the plaza itself. The ballcourt has two entrances in the form of inset stairways in the end zones, in the centre of the ballcourt's north and south walls. The side walls of the playing alley are slightly sloped and are topped by a cornice; the playing alley is flanked by two low benches set against the east and west walls. The end zones also possess sloping walls. All the ballcourt walls were built of large stones. The ballcourt playing area measures north-south and is wide between the benches. The end zones measure east-west. The ballcourt was originally coated in stucco painted in a variety of colours; very little of this coating now remains. A drain opening empties runoff rainwater from the east side of the northern end zone; the drain continues under Platform B 2 and empties outside the retaining wall of Group B. It had two access stairways flanked by steep balustrades topped with vertical cornices. Behind the platform two stairways descend Group B's retaining wall towards Group B-X.
Pyramid B3 is actually two pyramids built upon a single basal platform. Together they comprise the most important architectural unit in Group B. The northern pyramid of the pair is denominated B3a; the southern is B3b. The two pyramids each have five stepped levels and face west onto the plaza. Each pyramid was accessed by a single stairway flanked by wide balustrades; each had a small altar at the base of its stairway. Both stairways had nineteen steps and the pyramids stand high. Low platforms on their summits indicate where the temple buildings once stood. A broken stela was excavated from within the fill of Pyramid B3a; it was a plain monument broken in two parts. The bottom section still stood, while the upper section was lying beside it. It is one of very few such monuments raised in the Maya highlands and such stelae are characteristic of the Classic Period (c. 250–900). It is possible that it stands where originally erected before the pyramid was built over it. A funerary urn was excavated from underneath the rear of Pyramid B3b.
thumb|right|This ballcourt marker is the only example of stone sculpture recovered from Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo)
Platform B4 encloses the north side of the Group B plaza. The platform consists of a single level set upon a base and possesses corniced walls. Access was via an inset stairway in the centre of the south side. The platform top was floored with slabs and possessed a low double terrace at the rear.
Pyramid B6 enclosed the southern portion of the west side of the Group B plaza. It is very poorly preserved and the top of the pyramid has collapsed, leaving only the lower walls. Archaeological investigation revealed that the final version of the pyramid had been built over a preceding version. This structure was likely to have been an altar shrine.
Platform B8 is a range structure on the west side of Group B. The retaining wall of Group B drops away into the neighbouring ravine behind Platform B8. A great number of funerary urns were excavated around the base of this platform. The stairway is flanked by wide balustrades that form the western facade of the temple platform.
Structure B-X4 has also been restored. It is a south-facing range structure with four inset access stairways.
Group C
Group C lies to the southwest of Group B and east of Group E.
thumb|right|Platform C2
Pyramid C1 is the principal structure in Group C. Archaeological investigation uncovered three versions of the pyramid, each built over the last. The third and final construction phase was considerably larger than the preceding versions of the pyramid.
A burial was excavated from in front of the wall of the earliest version of the pyramid. The associated offerings included a number of clay vessels, a necklace of small gold bells and a copper axe. the presence of metal artefacts associated with the earliest construction phase at Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo) demonstrates the short span of the site and suggests that all three construction phases succeeded each other relatively rapidly. Further ceramic offerings were deposited under both of the latter two phases and an artificially deformed skull was interred under the central axis of the final version. A number of funerary urns were excavated from the base of Platform C2.
thumb|left|The lower part of Group C, with Structures C11 and C14
Structure C8 is a residential compound that was accessed from the alley running to the East Plaza from behind Pyramid C1. The entrance opened onto the alley from a patio situated in the southern portion of the compound. This patio was surrounded on the east, west and north sides by rooms, with the alley to the south. It was floored with stucco and Structure C8 was the only stuccoed residential building in the whole of the city. The north range of rooms backed directly onto the ravine immediately to the north of Group C; the lower portion of the walls of the west room and of half of the north room still stand. The west room was square while the north room was narrow and probably extended the entire width of the patio. Wear marks in the stucco floor indicate that a door once accessed the north room from the west. The workmanship of Structure C8 was of very high quality and indicates that it was the residence of a member of the city's elite. Its proximity to the large pyramid-temple C1 has led archaeologist Henri Lehmann to speculate that it was once the house of the high priest. The pyramid had three stepped levels erected upon a low base. It faces west towards the plaza and had a single access stairway flanked by sloping balustrades that terminate in vertical sections at the upper extremes. The pyramid was of fine workmanship using well-cut stone slabs. However, itw was poorly preserved and the southern part had partially collapsed. The surviving portions of the building allowed it to be accurately restored by archaeologists.
Platform D2 is on the north side of the Group D plaza; it has not been investigated by archaeologists. the only example burial urns being interred behind such a platform.
Structure E2 is a range structure on the north side of the Group E plaza.
Structure E4 is a platform located behind Pyramid E1 and encloses the eastern side of the Group E plaza. It faces west onto the plaza and has two access stairways, both flanked by ramps built from small slabs of stone and with cornices at the top. The platform walls are of fine workmanship, being built with well-cut and carefully fitted pumice. The front portion of the upper platform was paved with stone slabs, and a bench ran the entire length of the back of the platform. The clay floor between the paving and the bench was found to have been burnt. An offering was excavated from the central axis of the platform's base, it consisted of two ring-shaped clubs placed on either side of a stone ball.
Group G consists of a number of small structures strung out along the ridge to the north of Group A.
Cueva de La Lola ("Lola's Cave") is situated below Group A, near the bank of the Pancaco River as it flows to the northwest of the ruins. The cave is deep and wide; for most of its length it is high.
A total of 52 urns were excavated from the ruins of Jilotepeque Viejo; 8 of these were destroyed by the 1976 earthquake leaving 44 available for study. Twelve of these were in the collection of the Musée de l'Homme in Paris for approximately thirty years; These urns, together with all other artefacts from Mixco Viejo (Jilotepeque Viejo), were repatriated to Guatemala in 1998. Each urn contained the cremated remains of a single adult. All of these appeared to be mature or elderly adults; the remains of young adults were notably absent, indicating that elite warriors were buried in some other manner. The remains of animal bones were found mixed among a significant portion of the contents of the urns; where identifiable these included deer bones and those of a number of bird species, particularly parrots and birds of prey.
Only six of the urns contained associated funerary offerings:
{|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"
|+ Offerings in funerary urns from Jilotepeque Viejo
! Urn
! Structure