Military history of Canada

The military history of Canada spans centuries of conflicts within the country, as well as international engagements involving the Canadian military. The Indigenous nations of Canada engaged in conflicts with one another for millennia. The arrival of European settlers in the 17th century led to new alliances and hostilities among Indigenous nations and colonial powers, leading to conflicts such as the Beaver Wars.

The late 17th and 18th centuries saw four major British-French conflicts fought in Canada, culminating with the British conquest of New France in 1760. This reshaped the region and contributed to the American Revolutionary War, during which American attempts to seize Quebec and spark a revolt in Nova Scotia failed.

The 19th century brought both external threats and internal challenges to British North America. While its colonies repelled American invasions during the War of 1812, the Rebellions of 1837–1838 and Fenian raids highlighted the need for militia reforms and contributed to Canadian Confederation in 1867. The end of the century saw Canadian units become involved in British imperial conflicts like the Nile Expedition and Second Boer War.

In the 20th century, Canada played a significant role in both World Wars. After World War II, it embraced multilateralism, with its military participating in international coalitions and peacekeeping missions, including the Korean War and the Gulf War. In the 21st century, Canada has continued its involvement in multilateral military coalitions, contributing to missions in the Greater Middle East and Mali.

Warfare pre-contact

Warfare took place throughout the continent at various levels of in intensity, frequency and decisiveness. Periods of raiding occurred even in subarctic areas that had sufficient population density. However, Inuit groups in the extreme northern Arctic typically avoided direct warfare due to their small populations, relying on traditional law to resolve conflicts. Conflict was waged for economic and political reasons, such as asserting their tribal independence, securing resources and territory, exacting tribute, and controlling trade routes. Additionally, conflicts arose for personal and tribal honour, seeking revenge for perceived wrongs.

thumb|left|Indigenous weaponry on display at the [[Canadian Museum of History]]

In pre-contact Canada, Indigenous warriors relied primarily on the bow and arrow, having honed their archery skills through their hunting practices. Knives, hatchets/tomahawks and warclubs were used for hand-to-hand combat. However, major conflicts sometimes occurred. The St. Lawrence Valley Iroquois were also almost completely displaced, likely due to warfare with their neighbours the Algonquin. The threat of conflict impacted how some groups lived, with Algonquian and Iroquois groups residing in fortified villages with layers of defences and wooden palisades at least by 1000 CE. Slavery was common among the Pacific Northwest Coast's Indigenous people like the Tlingit and Haida, with around a quarter of the region's population being enslaved. These military alliances became important to European colonial powers in their struggle for North American hegemony during the 17th and 18th centuries.

European contact

thumb|Skirmish between [[Martin Frobisher's men and Inuit, .]]

The first clash between Europeans and Indigenous peoples likely transpired around 1003, during Norse attempts to settle North America's northeastern coast, such as at L'Anse aux Meadows. Although relations were initially peaceful, conflict arose between the Norse and local First Nations, or Skrælings, possibly due to the Norse's refusal to sell weapons. Indigenous bows and clubs proved effective against Norse weaponry, and their canoes offered greater manoeuvrability in an environment they were familiar with. Outnumbered, the Norse abandoned the settlement.

The first European-Indigenous engagements to occur in Canada during the Age of Discovery took place during Jacques Cartier's third expedition to the Americas from 1541 to 1542. Between 1577 and 1578, the Inuit clashed with English explorers under Martin Frobisher near Baffin Island. especially as tribes got embroiled in the economic and military rivalries of European settlers. Unequal access to firearms and horses significantly amplified bloodshed in Indigenous conflicts. By the end of the 17th century, Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands and the eastern subarctic rapidly transitioned to firearms, supplanting the bow. Though firearms predominated, the bow and arrow saw limited use into the early 18th century as a covert weapon for surprise attacks. French claims stretched to the Mississippi River valley, where fur trappers and colonists established scattered settlements. The French built a series of forts to defend these settlements, although some were also used as trading posts. These colonies grew slowly due to difficult geographical and climatic circumstances. By 1706, its population was around 16,000. By the mid-1700s, New France had about one-tenth of the population of the British Thirteen Colonies to the south. In addition to the Thirteen Colonies, the English chartered seasonal fishing settlements in Newfoundland Colony and claimed Hudson Bay and its drainage basin, known as Rupert's Land, through the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC).

The early military of New France was made up of regulars from the French Royal Army and Navy, supported by the colonial militia. Initially composed of soldiers from France, New France's military evolved to include volunteers raised within the colony by 1690. Many French soldiers stationed in New France also chose to stay after their service, fostering a tradition of generational service and the creation of a military elite. By the 1750s, most New French military officers were born in the colony. New France's military also relied on Indigenous allies for support to mitigate the manpower advantage of the Thirteen Colonies. This relationship significantly impacted New French military practices, like the adoption of Indigenous guerrilla tactics by its military professionals.

Beaver Wars

The Beaver Wars (1609–1701) were intermittent conflicts involving the Iroquois Confederacy, New France, and France's Indigenous allies. By the 17th century, several First Nations' economies relied heavily on the regional fur trade with Europeans. The French quickly joined pre-existing Indigenous alliances such as the Huron-Algonquin alliance, bringing them into conflict with the Iroquois Confederacy, who initially aligned with Dutch colonists and later with the English. As a result, the primary threat against New France in its early years were the Iroquois, particularly the easternmost Kanien'kehá:ka, known to Europeans as the Mohawk.

Conflict between the French and Iroquois likely arose from the latter's ambition to control the beaver pelt trade. Although France's Indigenous allies saw some success, the Iroquois gained the initiative after adopting tactics that integrated Indigenous hunting skills and terrain knowledge with firearms acquired from the Dutch. Access to firearms proved decisive, enabling the Iroquois to wage an effective guerrilla war. The regiment's arrival led the Iroquois to agree to peace in 1667.

thumb|upright|Governor General [[Louis de Buade de Frontenac with First Nation allies, ]]

In 1689, the Iroquois launched new attacks, including the Lachine massacre, to support their English allies during the Nine Years' War and in retaliation for the 1687 expedition.

Anglo-French War (1627–1629)

thumb|upright|[[David Kirke accepting the surrender of Quebec from Samuel de Champlain, 1629]]

During the 1627–1629 Anglo-French War, the English authorized David Kirke to conduct raids against the French in Canada and settle the area. Kirke's forces seized a French supply fleet and Tadoussac in 1628, and captured Quebec City the next year.

Scottish settlers founded settlements in seized French territories like Port-Royal and Baleine. However, French forces destroyed Baleine just two months after its founding in 1629. In 1630, an Anglo-Scottish attack against Fort St. Louis, one of France's last remaining Acadian strongholds, was repulsed. French settlements that were seized during the war were returned in the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. After Lieutenant Governor Isaac de Razilly died in 1635, Acadia was split administratively. Charles de Menou d'Aulnay ruled from Port-Royal and Charles de Saint-Étienne de la Tour governed from Saint John. Unclear boundaries overs administrative authority led to conflict between the two governors. In response, d'Aulnay imposed a five-month blockade on Saint John. La Tour's forces overcame the blockade and retaliated with an attack on Port-Royal in 1643. In April 1645, d'Aulney besieged and captured Saint John, after hearing of La Tour's departure to meet his supporters in New England. d'Aulney governed all of Acadia from 1645 until he died in 1650, having gained favour with the French government by informing them of La Tour's attempt to seek aid from the English in New England.

Anglo-Dutch Wars

thumb|Route of the [[Dutch Raid on North America|Dutch fleet raiding North America from 1672 to 1674.]]

The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) resulted from tensions between England and the Dutch Republic, driven partly by competition over maritime dominance and trade routes. In 1664, Michiel de Ruyter was instructed to retaliate against the English seizures of Dutch East India Company assets in West Africa by attacking English ships. In 1665, his fleet raided English settlements and shipping, including St. John's, Newfoundland. The treaty that ended the conflict saw the English return Acadia to the French, a region they had seized in 1654.

In 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), a Dutch fleet raided English colonies in North America, including fishing fleets and shore facilities at Ferryland, Newfoundland.

Nine Years' War

thumb|A French-First Nations expedition prepares to [[Schenectady massacre|attack Schenectady in 1690]]

During the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), English and French forces clashed in North America in a conflict known as King William's War. Governor General Frontenac initially devised an invasion to conquer the Province of New York to isolate the Iroquois, although the plan was later scaled back. In February 1690, three New French-First Nations military expeditions were launched against New England. One attacked Schenectady, another raided Salmon Falls, while a third besieged Fort Loyal. New France also urged other First Nations allies to conduct raids along the English American frontier and promoted scalpings for psychological warfare. the English launched two retaliatory expeditions. After a failed landing at Beauport, English forces withdrew. Another English expedition was repulsed at the Battle of La Prairie in 1691.

In 1696, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville was tasked with attacking English fishing stations and expel the English from Newfoundland. Setting sail in November from Plaisance, the French administrative capital for the island, By the end of March 1697, the French destroyed 36 settlements in Newfoundland, with Bonavista and Carbonear the only settlements on the island under English control.

thumb|The [[Hudson's Bay Company garrison evacuates Fort Nelson shortly after the Battle of Hudson's Bay in 1697]]

During the war, the French strengthened their control over Hudson Bay, having already seized several HBC forts in an expedition two years before the war. French attempts to capture York Factory, HBC's only remaining fort around Hudson's Bay, included a failed effort in 1690 and its brief capture in 1694, although the English later recaptured the fort. The French finally secured York Factory after the Battle of Hudson's Bay in 1697.

The 1697 Peace of Ryswick ended the war, and required the return of territorial gains in North America. However, the HBC was forced to surrender all but one fort on Hudson Bay. After the peace, the English and French reinforced their alliances and trade relations with Indigenous groups. It also paved the way for the end of the Beaver Wars in 1701.

English-maritime Algonquians conflict

The Nine Years' War intersected with an ongoing conflict between the English and maritime Algonquians, who had been attacking English settlements in retaliation against their territorial encroachment shortly before the English-French conflict started. The French government increased its military spending in its North American colonies, maintaining expansive garrisons at remote fur trading posts, improving the fortifications in Quebec City, and constructing a new fortified town on Île Royale, Louisbourg, dubbed the "Gibraltar of the North" or the "Dunkirk of America."

New France and the New England Colonies engaged in three wars during the 18th century.

War of the Spanish Succession

During the War of the Spanish Succession, English and French forces clashed in North America in a conflict known as Queen Anne's War (1702–1713). The conflict primarily focused on Acadia and New England, as Canada and New York informally agreed to remain neutral. Initially neutral, the French-aligned Abenaki were drawn into the conflict due to English hostilities. The raid on Grand Pré, launched by New England forces, was in retaliation for a French-First Nations raid on Deerfield in the British Province of Massachusetts Bay. Similar raids in Massachusetts included the raid on Haverhill.

The French suffered a major setback when the British captured the Acadian capital of Port-Royal after three-sieges. Although the French repelled two sieges in 1707, the British succeeded after a third siege in 1710. Building on this success, the British launched the Quebec Expedition to capture the capital of New France. However, the expedition was abandoned when its fleet was wrecked by the waters of the St. Lawrence River. However, due to a dispute over the size of Acadia, the French maintained control over its western portion (present-day New Brunswick). The French also continued its relationship with the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq in Acadia and encouraged them to attack the British. In May 1722 Lieutenant Governor John Doucett took 22 Mi'kmaq hostages to Annapolis Royal to prevent the capital from being attacked. In July, the Abenaki and Mi'kmaq initiated a blockade of Annapolis Royal, aiming to starve the capital. Due to increasing tensions, Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute declared war on the Abenaki on July 22. Early engagements during the war took place in the Nova Scotia. In July 1724, 60 Mi'kmaq and Maliseets raided Annapolis Royal.

The treaty that ended the war marked a major change in European relations with the maritime Algonquians, as it granted the British the right to settle in traditional Abenaki and Mi'kmaq lands.

Fox Wars

The Fox Wars, was an intermittent conflict from 1712 to the 1730s between New France and its Indigenous allies against the Meskwaki. The conflict highlighted how the New French military, supported by its allies, was able to inflict significant losses against enemies thousands of kilometres away from its Canadian core. with Canso, Annapolis Royal, and Grand Pré among the Nova Scotian settlements attacked. French-Mohawk forces also attacked New England and New York, raiding Saratoga and besieging Fort Massachusetts. However, the Mohawk were unwilling to join French excursions deeper into New York to avoid conflicts with other members of the Iroquois Confederacy. The capture of Louisbourg significantly weakened Franco-Indigenous alliances around the Great Lakes as it isolated Quebec City from France and interrupted trade. As a result, the price of goods skyrocketed and the French could not provide annual gifts to secure its alliances. This caused some Indigenous nations to end their support for the French war effort, viewing the absence of gifts as a breach of alliance terms.

Although Louisbourg was captured, the British failed to advance further into New France after its forces were defeated at Port-la-Joye in 1746.

Father Le Loutre's War

thumb|The [[Royal Navy capture French ships carrying war supplies to the Acadians and Mi'kmaq in June 1755]]

Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755) took place in Acadia and Nova Scotia, with the Mi'kmaq and Acadians, under the leadership of French priest Jean-Louis Le Loutre, opposing British and New England settlers, led by figures like John Gorham and Charles Lawrence. The Mi'kmaq and Acadians attacked British forts and newly established Protestant settlements to hinder British expansion and support France's Acadian resettlement efforts.

After Halifax was established by the British, the Acadians and Mi'kmaq attacked Chignecto, Grand-Pré, Dartmouth, Canso, Halifax and Country Harbour. The French erected forts at present-day Saint John, Chignecto and Fort Gaspareaux. The British responded by attacking the Mi'kmaq and Acadians at Mirligueche, Chignecto and St. Croix, and building forts in Acadian communities at Windsor, Grand-Pré, and Chignecto.

Acadia and Nova Scotia experienced unprecedented fortification building and troop deployments during the conflict,

Seven Years' War

thumb|upright=1.3|Map of North American military campaigns during the [[Seven Years' War.]]

New French-British colonial hostilities culminated in the Seven Years' War. Although formal hostilities between France and Britain began in 1756, fighting erupted in North America in 1754 in what became known as the French and Indian War (1754–1760). Disputes over the Ohio Country prompted the French to construct a series forts in 1753, sparking hostilities with neighbouring British colonies in 1754.

Most First Nations supported the French, largely due to their opposition to earlier British territorial policies. The British worked to undermine the Franco-Indigenous alliances by seeking the latter's neutrality through Iroquois intermediaries. The Iroquois Confederacy eventually entered the conflict as a British ally at the Battle of Fort Niagara in 1759. Although most of the plan had failed, the army sent to Acadia was successful at the Battle of Fort Beauséjour. These campaigns resulted in the forced relocation of over 12,000 Acadians from Acadia during the war.

thumb|A 1758 raid on an Acadian village during a [[Gulf of St. Lawrence campaign (1758)|campaign to expel the Acadians from Acadia.]]

In 1756, following the formal declaration of war between the British and French, the commander-in-chief of New France, Pierre de Rigaud, marquis de Vaudreuil-Cavagnial, devised a strategy to keep the British on the defensive and away from the populated areas of New France, like Canada. This resulted in French offensives like the Battle of Fort Oswego and Siege of Fort William Henry, and raids on British frontier settlements by the Canadian militia and First Nations allies. A small French army, supported by the militia and First Nations allies, effectively pinned down British forces at its frontier, prompting the dispatch of 20,000 additional soldiers to reinforce British America. Despite early success in tying down British forces, the French were hindered by limited resources, as most of France's army was engaged in Europe, unable to reinforce its colony. However, in the following weeks, the French positioned worsened. The British captured Louisbourg after a month-long siege in June–July 1758 and destroyed the French supply stock at Fort Frontenac in August 1758. The French were also compelled abandon Fort Duquesne when some of their First Nations allies ageed to a separate peace agreement with the British.

thumb|The French Army surrender shortly after the [[fall of Montreal]]

In April 1760, the French launched a campaign to retake Quebec City, defeating the British at the Battle of Sainte-Foy. After the battle, the British withdrew into the walls of Quebec City's. The French besieged the city until May, when a British naval force defeated a French naval unit supporting the siege at the Battle of Pointe-aux-Trembles. The arrival of the British Royal Navy left New France virtually isolated from France. A week later, the British made peace with the Seven Nations of Canada, followed by France's maritime Algonquian allies in 1761. This led to a British military response that included a 300-man battalion of French Canadians under former Troupes de la Marine officers, deployed as part of Brigadier-General John Bradstreet's expedition. American frustrations intensified following the passage of the Quebec Act, which restored Catholic rights in Quebec, much to the ire of the anti-Catholic Protestant-based Thirteen Colonies. The act also expanded Quebec's territory to include portions of the Indian Reserve, such as the Ohio Country, long desired by British colonies like Pennsylvania and Virginia. These tensions led to a political revolution in the Thirteen Colonies, and eventually, the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), with American rebels aiming to break free from the British parliament, and assert their claim on the Ohio Country.

Quebec and Nova Scotia

At the war's start, most people in Quebec and the Maritime colonies remained neutral, hesitant to join either the Americans or the British side. Early in the war, revolutionaries launched a propaganda campaign in the Canadian colonies, although it only attracted limited support. British attempts to raise a militia in Quebec also saw limited success, although they were able to rely on the French Canadian clergy, landowners, and other leading citizens for support. After the failed assault, the Americans besieged Quebec until spring 1776, when they were routed by a British naval force sent to relieve Quebec. The Americans subsequently abandoned Montreal, and their remaining forces were defeated at the Battle of Trois-Rivières in June 1776. British forces, led by General John Burgoyne, pursued the retreating Americans out of Quebec into New York in a counter-invasion. First Nations allies, led by Thayendanegea, also raided US border settlements from 1778 to war's end. Although they failed to incite a revolt, Nova Scotia remained a target of American privateering throughout the war, with most coastal outposts being attacked. American privateers seized 225 vessels departing from or arriving at Nova Scotian ports in total. The French Navy also attacked a British naval convoy off Nova Scotia in July 1781. Conversely, the British captured many American privateers off Nova Scotia's coast, such as in the 1782 battle off Halifax. They also used the colony as a staging ground to launch attacks against New England, as seen in the Battle of Machias.

Consequences

The revolutionaries' failure to seize the Canadian colonies and their continued loyalty to the British fragmented Britain's North American empire. Despite successfully defending Quebec and Nova Scotia, British military defeats in the Thirteen Colonies led to their surrender in 1781 and the subsequent recognition of the independent US republic in the Treaty of Paris of 1783.

Suspicions against the US persisted in the Canadian colonies for decades. Over 75,000 Loyalists, comprising 15 per cent of residents in the Thirteen Colonies who supported the Crown, migrated north to the remaining parts of British North America. The British also ceded the Indian Reserve south of the Great Lakes to the newly formed United States. As the area included traditional Iroquois territory, the British offered land in Quebec to the Iroquois, hoping to establish new Iroquois communities that would serve as a barrier against the Americans.

According to Isaac Weld, some Canadians, primarily of mixed European and First Nations descent, discreetly fought alongside the Confederacy at Wabash. The Confederacy's defeat at Fallen Timbers revealed Britain's reluctance to intervene, prompting Confederacy members to sign the Treaty of Greenville with the US in 1795. Britain also normalized relations with the US through the Jay Treaty and withdrew from the Northwest Territory. Instead, his squadron disrupted the island's fisheries and razed Bay Bulls and Petty Harbour.

19th century

A form of compulsory military service continued in the Canadas into the 19th century, with legislation in Lower Canada in 1803 and Upper Canada in 1808 extending the militia age range from 16 to 60. However, in practice, the compulsory sedentary militia was mobilized solely during emergencies. In peacetime, service involved a one to two-day annual muster parade.

thumb|upright|left|Depiction of a [[Dundas County Militia|Dundas County militiaman, ]]

The role of the militia during the American Revolution and War of 1812 led to the "citizen soldier" becoming a unique symbol of adulation in 19th-century Canadian military culture. This veneration stands in contrast with the United States and other British settler colonies, and led to the "militia myth" in the 19th-century Canadian zeitgeist, a belief that it did not need a standing army for its defence, as it could rely on its inhabitants to mobilize into militias overnight. This belief created a tendency to ignore the need for rigorous militia training during peacetime.

War of 1812

Anglo-American tensions continued into the 19th century and were exacerbated during the Napoleonic Wars by Britain's naval blockade of France and the impressment of US sailors they claimed were deserters. Unable to challenge the Royal Navy, the US proposed invading Canada as a means to strike Britain, and to end British support for Indigenous resistance in its western frontier.

thumb|The surrender of the US garrison at [[Fort Shelby (Michigan)|Fort Detroit, after British-First Nations forces besieged the fort in 1812]]

Believing a bold move was needed to rally support in Upper Canada, Major-General Isaac Brock quickly ordered a British-First Nations siege on Fort Mackinac and advanced to Amherstburg to confront the invading US Army, only to find they had retreated to Detroit. leading to the capture of Detroit and occupation of the Michigan Territory by British-First Nations forces.

In October 1812, British-First Nations forces repelled an American crossing of the Niagara River at the Battle of Queenston Heights, though Brock was killed in the battle. Despite Brock's successes, his death led the British to adopt a defensive stance, with Governor General George Prevost concentrating the strongest garrisons in Lower Canada and reinforcing Upper Canada only as additional troops arrived from overseas.

Although the British defended the Niagara Peninsula in 1813, they suffered setbacks in the western frontier after the failed siege of Fort Meigs and the loss of control of the Upper Great Lakes after the Battle of Lake Erie. Tecumseh's death during the battle fractured his confederacy and their alliance with the British.

In late 1813, two American invasion forces against Lower Canada were repelled, with one stopped at the Battle of the Chateauguay in October by British-First Nations forces and another at the Battle of Crysler's Farm in November.

1814

thumb|A British night assault against American positions at [[Old Fort Erie|Fort Erie during the siege of the fort in 1814]]

The final incursions into the Canadas occurred in 1814, when US forces crossed the Niagara River in July and captured Fort Erie. The US advance led to the Battle of Lundy's Lane. While ending in a stalemate, the exhausted Americans withdrew to Fort Erie, where they successfully withstood a British siege before withdrawing back to the US in September. In the Atlantic, British naval efforts were supported by Nova Scotian privateer ships raiding US shipping. The most notable Nova Scotian privateer ship, the Liverpool Packet, captured 50 ships by war's end.

thumb|left|upright|, a Royal Navy [[first-rate launched in Lake Ontario in September 1814]]

The end of the War of the Sixth Coalition allowed Britain to focus on the war with the US, with Lower Canada and Nova Scotia used as staging areas. The force gathered in Lower Canada invaded northern New York but was repelled at the Battle of Plattsburgh in September, while the force gathered in Halifax successfully captured most of Maine's coastline by mid-September.

Pemmican War

In 1812, the Red River Colony was established by the HBC despite protest from the North West Company (NWC), who already operated the nearby trading post, Fort Gibraltar. In January 1814, the colony issued the Pemmican Proclamation, banning the export of pemmican and other provisions for a year to secure its growth. The NWC and local Métis voyageurs that traded with them opposed the ban, viewing it as a move by the HBC to control their food supply.

thumb|HBC officials and Métis [[voyageurs with the North West Company clash at Seven Oaks]]

In June 1815, Métis leader and NWC clerk Cuthbert Grant led a group to harass and steal supplies from the Red River settlement. In response, the HBC seized Fort Gibraltar in March 1816 to curb the pemmican trade. This led to the Battle of Seven Oaks in June 1816, where HBC officials confronted Métis and First Nations voyageurs. After the confrontation, Grant briefly controlled the area as Red River settlers withdrew to Norway House. HBC authority was restored in August when Thomas Douglas, 5th Earl of Selkirk, arrived with 90 soldiers. The Rideau Canal was built to provide a northern waterway from Montreal to Kingston during wartime, bypassing the St. Lawrence River, a waterway that was also the Canada–United States border.

Local levies and recruitment

thumb|The [[100th (Prince of Wales's Royal Canadian) Regiment of Foot receiving their regimental colours from Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, 1859]]

The British Army levied and recruited from the local population to form new units or to replace individuals lost to enemy action, sickness, or desertion, with levies taking place during the War of 1812 and the Rebellions of 1837–1838. British Army units raised in Canadian colonies during this period include the 100th (Prince of Wales's Royal Canadian) Regiment of Foot and the Royal Canadian Rifle Regiment.

Several Canadians served in the British military during the Crimean War, with the Welsford-Parker Monument in Halifax the sole Crimean War monument in North America. Alexander Roberts Dunn, the first Canadian recipient of the Victoria Cross, earned the medal for his actions during the Charge of the Light Brigade. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, William Nelson Hall became the first Black Nova Scotian to receive the medal, having been awarded it for his actions at the Siege of Lucknow.

Rebellions of 1837–1838

Armed uprisings broke out from 1837 to 1838 in the Canadas. Calls for responsible government and an economic depression in Lower Canada led to protests and, subsequently, an armed insurrection led by the radical Patriote movement. Revolts in Lower Canada erupted in November 1837, and was the more significant and violent insurgency in the Canadas. Another armed uprising occurred in Upper Canada shortly thereafter, its leaders inspired by the events in Lower Canada.

The rebellions led to the Durham Report, which recommended uniting the Canadas and introducing responsible government. This former was realized when the Province of Canada was formed through the Act of Union 1840, and responsible government was introduced in 1848. The disorganized rebels were defeated, with their leadership escaping to the US. Following this, anglophone militias pillaged and burned French Canadian settlements. Rebels, largely made up of disaffected American-born farmers who opposed the preferential treatment of British settlers in the colony's land grant system, converged at Montgomery's Tavern in Toronto on December 5, 1837. Most rebels dispersed after encountering a picket of 20 Loyalists, though a small faction stayed until Loyalist and Black Loyalist militias arrived three days later.

From 1838, rebels who had fled to the US conducted cross-border raids against Upper Canada, with support from the Hunters' Lodges, US-based secret societies aiming to overthrow British rule in Canada. While unsuccessful, these raids led the US to deploy military forces along its northern border to uphold American neutrality. The raids ended after the rebels' defeat at the Battle of the Windmill. British records report 13 British and Canadian soldiers killed, while Patriot casualties range from 17 to 50.

The Chilcotin War erupted in April 1864 after the Tsilhqot'in killed 21 prospectors and construction workers who entered their territory. The killings led to a month-long armed standoff in the British Columbia Interior, as a force largely made up of American prospectors marched from New Westminster against the Tsilhqot'in. The conflict ended with the arrest of a Tsilhqot'in peace delegation under false pretenses. Six delegates were convicted and hanged for murder, despite Tsilhqot'in claims that the killings were acts of war. In 2018, the Canadian government exonerated the six men and issued an apology, acknowledging that they acted in accordance with Tsilhqot'in law and tradition.

American Civil War

upright|thumb|left|[[Anderson Ruffin Abbott in 1863, a Canadian who served in the Union Army during the American Civil War.]]

At the start of the American Civil War (1861–1865), the British Empire declared neutrality, although its colonies in British North America sold weapons to both sides of the war. Although some Canadian newspapers sympathized with the Confederate States of America due to its alignment with colonial "security interests," the vast majority of the 40,000 Canadians who volunteered to fight in the Civil War did so with the Union Army. Most Canadians fought as volunteers, although some were coerced into service by American recruiters or "crimpers". By the war's end, 29 Canadian Union Army officers were awarded the Medal of Honor. The Trent Affair, the most serious incident of the war, occurred in 1861 when a US gunboat stopped the RMS Trent to seize two Confederate officials en route to the UK. The British demanded an apology and the release of the passengers. War appeared imminent in the months after, with the British reinforcing its North American garrison from 4,000 to 18,000 soldiers.

When the Union Army regained the initiative in 1863, Confederate agent, Jacob Thompson, was tasked with creating a northern front from Canada. With Confederate activities tolerated by Canadian authorities and citizens, Thompson set up bases in Montreal and Toronto. His plans included raiding prison camps to free Confederate prisoners and attacking Union ships in the Great Lakes. In 1864, Confederate raiders from Montreal raided St. Albans in Vermont, but they were defeated and were subsequently arrested at the border by British soldiers. The Fenians incorrectly assumed that Irish Canadians would support their invasion. However, the majority of Irish settlers in Canada West were Protestant, mainly of Anglo-Irish or Ulster-Scot descent, and largely loyal to the Crown.

The first raid took place in April 1866, as Fenians landed on Campobello Island and razed several buildings. The largest raid occurred on June 2 at the Battle of Ridgeway, where 750–800 Fenians repelled nearly 900 Canadian militiamen, largely due to the latter's inexperience. However, the Fenians withdrew to the US shortly after, anticipating additional British and Canadian reinforcements. In the same month, another party of 200 Fenians was defeated near Pigeon Hill.

While the militia prevented the Fenian from accomplishing its goals, the raids exposed deficiencies in its leadership, structure, and training, prompting subsequent reforms within it.

thumb|Departure of British forces from Quebec City in 1871. British forces withdrew from most of Canada in 1871, several years after [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation.]]

In 1869, the US sent demands to the UK seeking damages for British transgressions during the American Civil War. A British delegation, including Canadian Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, negotiated the Treaty of Washington in 1871 to settle the issue. The Royal Navy continued to provide for Canada's maritime defence, with the understanding that they would provide additional aid in emergencies.

Canadian enlistment in British forces after 1871

Canadian enlistment in the British military continued after Confederation and the British Army's withdrawal in 1871. Several Canadians opted for British service over the Canadian militia, as the latter showed little interest in expeditionary combat. The British Army specifically targeted Canadians for recruitment to replenish certain units, like the 100th Regiment of Foot. Canadians continued joining the British Army's enlisted ranks into the First World War, with several thousand Canadians serving in British units during the conflict.

thumb|left|The first graduating class of the [[Royal Military College of Canada in 1878. Cadets were recruited into the British military and the Canadian militia in the 19th century.]]

The British War Office also reserved officer commissions for Canadian "gentlemen and journeymen" to fill vacancies and bolster the British officer corps. The recruitment of Canadians into the British officer corps was encouraged by the War Office as a way to promote military interoperability between Canada and the UK, and to make the Canadian government more amicable to the idea of its military participating in British overseas campaigns. By 1892, about two-thirds of Royal Military College of Canada (RMC) graduates who received commissions opted to join the British military rather than the Canadian militia.

By 1900, RMC graduates in the British military had participated in 27 campaigns across Africa, Burma, India, and China. From 1880 and 1918, around a quarter of RMC graduates accepted commissions in the British military. Recruitment of RMC officer cadets into the British military declined in the early 20th century due to efforts by Frederick William Borden, the Canadian minister of militia and defence. As a result, from 1911 to 1914, over half of all graduates pursuing military careers joined the Canadian militia rather than the British military. The sedentary militia, later called the "Reserve Militia," was the traditional compulsory militia mobilized solely during emergencies.

thumb|Members of the [[Yukon Field Force in Vancouver in 1898. The Yukon Field Force was a garrison of the Active Militia's Permanent Force.]]

The Active Militia underwent professionalization in the 1870s and 1880s, with the establishment of two professional artillery batteries in 1871. The Active Militia expanded under the 1883 Militia Act, authorizing a new cavalry troop, an additional artillery battery, and three infantry companies. While the Active Militia's professional elements grew in the 1870s and 1880s, its marine component dwindled, with the last marine militia unit disbanded in 1878. A Cree war party engaged a Piikani Nation camp but was defeated, unaware that members of the Kainai Nation and Piegan Blackfeet were also there. The Blackfoot's use of revolving rifles likely aided in their victory. However their victory was pyrrhic, as their losses made them vulnerable to attack. Both sides lost as many as 300 warriors in the battle. Both sides, hoping to prevent another bloody battle like the one at Belly River agreed to peace in 1871. After an English-speaking settler was executed, a military expedition made up of 400 British regulars and 800 Canadian militiamen set out to retake the fort. Riel and his followers fled to the US before the expedition's arrival in August 1870. Although they fled, the resistance achieved its major objectives, with the federal government recognizing the rights of the Red River settlers through the establishment of the province of Manitoba.

thumb|The [[Battle of Batoche in 1885 was a decisive engagement during the North-West Rebellion where Canadian soldiers defeated a force of indigenous and Métis people.]]

In response, the Canadian government mobilized 3,000 militiamen to quell the resistance. General Frederick Middleton initially planned for the 3,000-person force to travel together by rail, but attacks at Battleford and Frog Lake forced him to send a 900-person force ahead of the main contingent. However, after the forward force was repelled at the Battle of Fish Creek, Middleton chose to wait for the rest of the contingent before successfully besieging Riel's outnumbered forces at the Battle of Batoche. Although Riel was captured at Batoche in May, resistance from Big Bear's followers persisted until 3 June at the Battle of Loon Lake.

Nile Expedition

In 1884, during the Mahdist War, British General Garnet Wolseley, drawing on his favourable experience with Canadian voyageurs during the Red River Rebellion, requested skilled Canadian boatmen to navigate his expedition up the Nile to relieve Major-General Charles Gordon's besieged forces in Khartoum. The Canadian government was hesitant to provide a force, but dispatched 386 voyageurs and Canadian militia officers after the British agreed to cover the cost of their deployment. Known as the Nile Voyageurs, the contingent became the first Canadian force to serve outside North America.

thumb|The [[Nile Expedition travelling by boat to relieve the siege of Khartoum]]

Arriving in Asyut in October 1884, the voyageurs transported 5,000 British troops upstream to Khartoum using wooden whaling boats. They arrived two days after the city's capture by Mahdist forces. Canadian militia officers overseeing the voyageurs took part in the Battle of Kirbekan weeks later. After Kirbekan, the expedition withdrew to Egypt, departing in April 1885. Sixteen members of the Canadian contingent died during the campaign. Most of English Canada supported participation, while near-universal opposition came from French Canadians and other groups. This split the governing Liberal Party led by Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, whose political base comprised both pro-imperial Anglo-Canadians and anti-imperial Franco-Canadians.

thumb|[[Royal Canadian Regiment of Infantry soldiers prepare to attack Boer position at the Battle of Paardeberg, 1900]]

Laurier aimed for a compromise to preserve Anglo-French relations, Two additional contingents followed, one comprising 6,000 volunteers from the Royal Canadian Dragoons and Canadian Mounted Rifles, and the third, Strathcona's Horse, was financed by The Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal. Many Canadians also served in the British Army's South African Constabulary.

Canadian forces arrived in South Africa after the initial phase of the conflict, which included British setbacks during Black Week. They earned praise for leading the final night attack that led to the Boers surrender at the Battle of Paardeberg. At the Battle of Leliefontein in November 1900, three members of the Royal Canadian Dragoons were awarded the Victoria Cross for protecting the rear of a retreating force, marking the only occasion when a Canadian unit received three Victoria Crosses in a single action. One of the last major battles involving Canadian units was the Battle of Hart's River in March 1902.

thumb|Injured Canadian soldiers and a [[military nurse|nursing sister in South Africa, 1901]]

Around 8,600 Canadians volunteered for service during the Boer War. About 7,400 Canadians, including 12 nursing sisters, served in South Africa. Of these, 224 died, 252 were wounded, and five were awarded the Victoria Cross. A wave of celebrations swept the country after the war, marked by many towns erecting their first war memorials. However, the public debate over Canada's role in the conflict strained relations between English and French Canada. This included the Engineer Corps (1903), Signalling Corps (1903), Service Corps (1903), Ordnance Stores Corps (1903), Corps of Guides (1903), Medical Corps (1904), Staff Clerks (1905), and Army Pay Corps (1906). Additional corps would be created in the years before and during the First World War, including the first separate military dental corps.

At the turn of the century, Canada asserted greater control over its defences with the passage of a new Militia Act in 1904, appointing a Canadian Chief of the General Staff. The Militia Act of 1904 also formally acknowledged the obsolescence of the sedentary Reserve Militia by removing the provision that designated male inhabitants of military age as members, replacing it with a provision theoretically making them "liable to serve in the militia". The Conservative Party advocated for Canada to contribute funds solely for the purchase and maintenance of Royal Navy vessels. To appease imperialists, the Naval Service Act included a provision allowing the RCN to be transferred to the British in emergency cases. The bill aimed to build a fleet of five cruisers and six destroyers. The first two ships, Niobe and , were somewhat outdated vessels purchased from the British. However, the election of a Conservative government in 1911 led to a reduction in funding, although later increased during the First World War.

First World War

thumb|A Canadian postcard from 1918 encouraging the purchase of [[War bonds|Victory Bonds. It depicts a soldier standing in a poppy field and includes a line from the war poem "In Flanders Fields".]]

On August 5, 1914, the British Empire, including Canada, entered the First World War (1914–1918) as a part of the Entente powers. As a dominion of the Empire, Canada had control over its contributions to the war effort. The CEF comprised infantry battalions and the Canadian Cavalry Brigade, with recruitment handled by the militia. Canada also established the Canadian Forestry Corps to harvest wood from France and Scotland for the war effort. In September 1915, after Ypres, the Canadian Corps was formed with the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Division in France, consolidating the CEF. The corps expanded with the 3rd Canadian Division joining in December 1915, followed by the 4th Canadian Division in August 1916. Canadian divisions were deployed to the Somme in August 1916. Throughout this period, the Canadian Corps participated in key battles such as Amiens and the Cambrai.

Air and sea operations

During the war, the RCN primarily conducted coastal submarine patrols as part of the Atlantic U-boat campaign. The sinking of by a U-boat in June 1918 marks the deadliest Canadian naval disaster of the war.

thumb|Lecture on rigging at the [[University of Toronto for the Royal Flying Corps Canada's aviation school.]]

Besides the Canadian military, Canadians served in British forces such as the Royal Navy and the Royal Flying Corps (RFC). Royal Flying Corps Canada was established in December 1916 as a training program for the force. By November 1918, it had graduated more than 3,100 pilots and observers, and 7,400 mechanics and aircraftsmen. The debate highlighted divisions between English and French Canada, with English Canada largely supporting it, while French Canadians, some English-speaking farmers, trade union leaders, pacifists, and Indigenous leaders opposing it.

thumb|left|Protest against the [[Military Service Act, 1917 and conscription at Victoria Square, Montreal, May 1917]]

Borden's Unionist Party, a coalition of pro-conscription Conservatives and Liberals, won the election and passed the Military Service Act, 1917, although it included various exemption provisions. After conscription was implemented in 1918, over 400,000 were called up, but 380,510 appealed for exemption. Ultimately, only 24,132 conscripts were sent to Europe. There are also eight memorials in France and Belgium to honour Canada's war dead from the war, like the Canadian National Vimy Memorial.

Distinct memorials honour the contributions of Newfoundland soldiers, then a separate British dominion. The largest Newfoundland memorials include the Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial in France and the Newfoundland National War Memorial in St. John's.

Interwar period

After the First World War, the Canadian Expeditionary Force was dissolved, with honours earned by its battalions perpetuated by Canadian militia units. In 1921, the Active Militia was restructured, forming the Permanent Active Militia from Permanent Force, and the Non-Permanent Active Militia from its reserve component. The National Defence Act of 1922 consolidated the Department of Militia and Defence with Air and Naval Services under the Department of National Defence.

Intervention in Russia

thumb|Canadians with the [[North Russian Expeditionary Force pose with a camouflaged gun, 1919]]

thumb|Troops of the [[Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force with a truck, 1919]]

The Canadian government sent around 6,000 soldiers to aid the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War in mid-1918 in response to a British request for assistance. Around 4,200 soldiers of the Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force (CSEF) were deployed to Vladivostok, while another Canadian contingent joined the Allied North Russian Expeditionary Force in northwest Russia. Canadian soldiers were deployed to northwest Russia in May 1918, while CSEF was deployed to Vladivastok in October. CSEF soldiers began their withdrawal from Russia in April 1919. However, the corps was disbanded in 1915. Canadians military aviators served with the British Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service during the war.

thumb| The [[Canadian Air Force (1918–1920)|Canadian Air Force of 1918 at RAF Upper Heyford, with Sopwith Dolphins as part of the No. 1 Fighter Squadron]]

In 1918, the British Air Ministry established a Canadian bomber and fighter squadron in Europe, marking a second attempt at forming a Canadian air force. The Canadian government later assumed control of these two squadrons, forming the Canadian Air Force. This air force, however, never saw service and was completely disbanded by 1921. After a reorganization the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) took over civil flying responsibilities from the Air Board and CAF after its creation in April 1924.

thumb|The Ikka Machine Gun Company of the [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion, ]]

Canadian volunteers initially joined the British Battalion, although 40 Canadians also joined the Lincoln and the George Washington battalions. In July 1937, the primarily Canadian Mackenzie–Papineau Battalion was mustered into the XV International Brigade. The battalion fought in five major campaigns, including the Battle of Teruel, the Aragon Offensive, and the Battle of the Ebro. Between 400 and 721 Canadian volunteers died in the war.

Second World War

The Second World War (1939–1945) began on September 1, 1939, with Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland. Canada issued a declaration of war against Germany on September 10. Although Canada was a significant contributor to the war, it played no major role in its strategic planning, as Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King refrained from involvement.

thumb|upright|left|[[Wait for Me, Daddy, by Claude P. Dettloff, October 1940, show Canadian soldiers marching to board the SS Princess Joan.]]

The fall of Belgium and France to Germany in June 1940 led Canada to drastically expand its military spending and armed forces, and implement conscription for home defence. The Conscription Crisis of 1944 saw Mackenzie King pressured to accept conscription for overseas service.

Canadian Army operations

The Canadian Militia (renamed the Canadian Army in November 1940) saw minimal action early in the war, with the 1st Canadian Division only briefly deploying alongside the Second British Expeditionary Force during the fall of France in June 1940. After the British withdrawal from Dunkirk, the 1st Canadian Division was one of few fully intact formations left in the UK in terms of equipment and manpower. By late 1940, multiple Canadian units were stationed in the UK to defend against a potential German invasion.

thumb|Canadian soldiers on exercise in Hong Kong prior to the [[Battle of Hong Kong|Japanese invasion of the colony in 1941]]

In December 1941, two Canadian battalions participated in the Battle of Hong Kong, while the 2nd Canadian Division led the Dieppe Raid in August 1942. The First Canadian Army was also formed in 1942, to prepare for the invasion of northwest Europe.

In July 1943, the 1st and 5th Canadian Divisions took part in the Allied invasion of Sicily as part of the British Eighth Army. They also participated in the Allied invasion of Italy, facing intense combat in the Battle of Ortona and the Moro River Campaign. In spring 1944, Canadian units under Lieutenant-General E. L. M. Burns played a leading role in breaking through the Hitler Line, and later breached the Gothic Line after the Battle of Rimini. In total, 92,757 Canadian soldiers served in the Italian campaign, with 5,764 casualties. supported by earlier landings of Canadian airborne troops behind the beaches. The Canadians led the breakout from the Normandy bridgehead, notably at the Falaise pocket. Afterwards, the First Canadian Army conducted campaigns to clear coastal fortress, like Operation Astonia.

In early 1945, Canadian units fought in the Siegfried Line campaign, clearing a path to the Rhine and enabling Allied offensives further beyond the river. After the campaign, the First Canadian Army participated in the liberation of the Netherlands and the Western Allied invasion of Germany. Around 237,000 Canadian soldiers served in North West Europe campaign in 1944 and 1945, among whom 11,336 died. After the Atlantic Convoy Conference in 1943, all Allied convoys north of New York City were coordinated through the Canadian Northwest Atlantic Command. RCN warships sank 33 enemy U-boats during the war. The light cruiser also participated in the Pacific War as a part of the British Pacific Fleet. The navy lost 24 warships during the war, the largest being the destroyer .

Air operations

thumb|[[North American T-6 Texan|Harvard Trainers at a BCATP flying school at RCAF Station Aylmer]]

The RCAF also contributed to the war effort, although its manpower was initially hindered by the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP), which trained aircrews for the UK, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. As a result of the earlier arrangement, many Canadian BCATP graduates served in RAF units like No. 242 (Canadian) Squadron RAF, instead of RCAF units. RCAF units participated in campaigns including the Battle of Britain, the Combined Bomber Offensive, and the Aleutian Islands campaign. In addition, they also conducted anti-submarine operations in the Atlantic. Throughout the war, 232,632 men and 17,030 women served in the RCAF, with 17,101 dead.

Industry and research

thumb|Members of the [[Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division. During the Second World War, women were recruited into the military to fill non-combat roles.]]

Canadian industries produced 815,729 units of war materials during the conflict, including small arms, warships, aircraft, and vehicles. Over half of Canada's output was sent to the UK, facilitated by the Billion Dollar Gift package. Labour shortages prompted many women to enter the workforce for the first time, filling roles left by enlisted men.

Canada also supported British and American efforts to develop an atomic bomb. In 1942, the Canadian government acquired the Eldorado Mine to mine uranium, The British and Americans agreed to cooperate on nuclear weapons development during the First Quebec Conference in 1943, and the Montreal Laboratory was absorbed into the Manhattan Project. As a founding NATO member and NORAD signatory, Canada was aligned with the Western Bloc against the Communist bloc. In the 1950s, Canada partnered with the US to establish early-warning radar systems, including the Pinetree Line, Mid-Canada Line, and the DEW Line, to defend against Soviet attacks.

As a middle power, Canada recognized its military constraints and embraced multilateralism, making its military contributions dependent upon being part of a larger multilateral coalition. As a result, it refrained from direct involvement in conflicts like the Vietnam War, despite the involvement of close allies.

Korean War

At the start of the Korean War (1950–1953), Canada quickly backed the establishment of a United Nations military force to liberate South Korea. Canadian units in Korea were integrated into the larger British Commonwealth Forces Korea. Canada initially contributed three RCN destroyers and the No. 426 Squadron, a RCAF military transport squadron, to support the war effort. Eight RCN ships rotated duties in Korean waters during the war, protecting the UN fleet and supporting onshore operations.

thumb|Two snipers of [[Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry in Korea during the Korean War.]]

Having undergone rapid demilitarization after the Second World War, the Canadian Army required several months to mobilize back to wartime strength. Domestic pressure for a larger commitment led the Canadian Army to form Special Force (later renamed the 25th Canadian Infantry Brigade) for deployment in Korea. For army units, the war was characterized as a "war of patrols" in mountainous terrain. Battles the Canadian Army fought in include the battles of Kapyong and Kowang-san. There were 1,558 Canadian casualties, including 516 dead. Hostilities ceased with the 1953 Korean Armistice Agreement. Following the armistice, Canada stationed a garrison in the region to patrol the Korean Demilitarized Zone until 1955. The last Canadian soldiers under United Nations Command departed the region in 1957.

In adherence to NATO obligations, Canada formed the 27th Canadian Infantry Brigade (27CIBG), later designated as 4 Combat Group and 4 Canadian Mechanized Brigade, for service in West Germany. It initially comprised 6,700 soldiers organized into several units, including three infantry battalions, an armoured regiment, and MGR-1 Honest John nuclear missile batteries. The brigade was reorganized following a 1970 defence review, losing its nuclear capability and reducing its size. By 1977, it transitioned from a frontline role as a part of the British commitment in northern Germany to a rear area reserve force in the south. Initially a day/all-weather interception squadron, its role shifted to nuclear strike and reconnaissance in 1962, and then solely to reconnaissance in 1966. The 1 Air Division initially comprised two wings in France and two in Germany, although RCAF assets in France were relocated to Germany after the French withdrawal from NATO in 1966. In the 1960s, Canada pursued full military unification to reduce costs and eliminate service duplication. In 1964, the National Defence Act was amended to create a unified command structure under a single Chief of the Defence Staff. The Canadian Forces Reorganization Act, 1968 then merged the Army, RCN, and RCAF into a singular Canadian Armed Forces (CAF), ending their existence as separate entities. On October 15, 1970, five days after the second kidnapping, the Quebec government requested military aid under the National Defence Act, with soldiers deployed to strategic locations in Montreal hours later. The following day, the federal government invoked the War Measures Act to confront the "apprehended insurrection," marking its only peacetime use.

Under the War Measures Act, the FLQ was banned and civil liberties were suspended. Troops were deployed to Quebec until January 1971. Ultimately, 12,500 Canadian Forces troops were stationed in Quebec, with 7,500 in Montreal. The federal government's use of the Act sparked controversy due to the unjust detention of most of those arrested, contributing to its replacement by the more restrained Emergencies Act in 1988. Canada's military involvement in the conflict was minimal, with a small contingent deployed in 1973 to enforce the Paris Peace Accords.

Throughout the conflict, Canada became a haven for American Vietnam War resisters, with around 20,000 Vietnam draft dodgers and 12,000 military deserters seeking refuge in the country. However, in a countercurrent to the movement of American draft dodgers and deserters to Canada, around 12,000 Canadians and Canadian-American dual citizens enlisted with the United States Armed Forces and served in combat roles in Vietnam. Between 110 and 134 Canadians died during the conflict. In 2009, seven remained listed as missing in action. over 16,000 to aid in New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec after the 1998 North American ice storm. The 1998 ice storm marked the largest Canadian military response to a domestic natural disaster and the largest operational deployment since the Korean War.

Oka Crisis

thumb|Canadian Forces personnel pictured behind two civilians of the [[Sûreté du Québec during the Oka Crisis in 1990.]]

The Oka Crisis was a land dispute between a Mohawk group and Oka, Quebec, from July 11 to September 26, 1990. After one police officer and two Mohawk were killed, Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa invoked Section 275 of the National Defence Act on August 8, requesting military support in "aid of the civil power".

The CAF mobilized 4,000 Quebec-based troops to support provincial authorities, staging at Kanesatake and Kahnawake, while reconnaissance aircraft gathered intelligence over Mohawk territory. Over 5,100 CAF personnel served, with 2,700 in theatre at its peak. Operations were coordinated under Operation Friction. The Gulf War marked the first time female CAF members served in combat roles. Canadian warships conducted about a quarter of all inspections of vessels suspected of breaching the coalition blockade. Another destroyer, , arrived after hostilities ceased and was the first allied ship to visit Kuwait. When the air campaign began, 24 Canadian CF-18s joined coalition forces in providing air cover and targeting ground assets, including assisting in the destruction of the Iraqi Navy during the Battle of Bubiyan. The air war in Iraq was the first offensive combat operation Canadian military personnel took part in since the Korean War.

A 530-person military field hospital was also deployed by the CAF, attached to a larger British unit.

Somali Civil War

thumb|A security checkpoint operated by Canadian soldiers at Belet Huen Field in Somalia, 1993

The CAF supported UNOSOM I during the Somali Civil War, providing security, humanitarian relief, and ceasefire monitoring. In December 1992, the US-led, UN-sanctioned force, UNITAF, arrived in Somalia. The force included 23 countries, with Canada contributing about 1,400 troops from the Canadian Airborne Regiment and the naval support ship . In May 1993, the mission transitioned to UN control as UNOSOM II. However, as UNOSOM II faced strong local resistance and struggled to enforce a ceasefire, it largely focused on protecting food and medical aid distribution sites rather than restoring order. Canadian soldiers were frequently harassed and their base often targeted by looters. In response, their commander authorized looters to be shot in the leg if they ran. Another officer later allowed thieves to be "captured and abused." In March 1993, members of the airborne unit were involved in two extrajudicial killings. The first involved a civilian who was shot while fleeing after breaking into their base for supplies, and the second involved a youth who was tortured and killed after breaking into the encampment. Cover-up attempts by senior officials at the Department of National Defence sparked a national scandal in Canada. A federal inquiry into the matter saw the end of several officers' careers, court-martials, and the airborne regiment's disbandment. The scandal damaged Canada's international reputation and was heralded as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military" since the Second World War.

In September 1993, the largest battle involving Canadian military personnel since the Korean War occurred when Canadian and French peacekeepers under UNPROFOR fought Croat forces for 15 hours. The Canadian-French contingent was tasked with securing the Medak pocket, a strategic salient between Croat and Serb forces when Operation Medak Pocket was launched by Croat forces.

The CAF also contributed warships to NATO's maritime blockade of the region and 18 CF-18 Hornets in support of the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia.

21st century

thumb| after it conducted a boarding of a vessel in the [[Arabian Sea in 2008. Charlottetown was deployed in support of Operation Altair, a naval anti-terrorism operation]]

During the early 21st century, Canada participated in multiple missions in support of the global war on terror, including the US-led Operation Enduring Freedom. This included security operations conducted in the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman from 2001 to 2012. This deployment marked the Canadian navy's largest since World War II, with 15 warships dispatched. At its peak in January 2002, six Canadian warships and 1,500 personnel were in the region, conducting patrols and intercepting suspected terrorists and illegal drug shipments.

While Canada participated in several multinational missions in the early 2000s, it abstained from joining the US-led coalition of the willing during the Iraq War. Although Canada was not directly involved in the Iraq War, its forces did help to relieve US naval assets during that conflict by expanding the CAF's role in Combined Task Force 151, a multinational task force combating piracy off the coast of Somalia. Several Canadians, serving as exchange officers with British and US units, also participated in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Conversely, some US military personnel who opposed the Iraq War sought refuge in Canada after deserting to avoid deployment.

War in Afghanistan

thumb|Canadian soldiers set up a command post in [[Tora Bora during Operation Torii, May 2002]]

Weeks after the September 11th attacks, Canada committed to joining the US-led war in Afghanistan (2001–2021). Canadian special forces participated in the initial invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, with an additional Canadian infantry battle group of 1,200 soldiers deployed to Kandahar in February 2002 to combat al-Qaeda and Taliban forces and support humanitarian efforts. After its relocation to Kandahar, the battle group oversaw counter-insurgency operations and the province's Provincial Reconstruction Team. In Kandahar, the battle group achieved a series of victories like Operation Medusa. However, they were unable to root out all insurgents in the region, who took refuge on the Pakistani side of the Afghanistan-Pakistan border. Support for the war dropped further after Joint Task Force 2 members were photographed handing over detainees to Afghan security forces, who were subsequently tortured. Despite mounting public opposition, the government remained committed to the war until 2011, partly due to the CAF's portrayal of the war as a success. Canadian Special Operations Forces Command personnel were briefly redeployed to Afghanistan during the 2021 Taliban offensive to evacuate Canadian citizens, close its embassy, and assist with the Kabul airlift.

Over 40,000 Canadian soldiers served in Afghanistan. The 12-year mission marked Canada's longest military campaign, with 165 Canadians killed, including 158 soldiers and seven civilians.

Libyan Civil War

On 25 February 2011, the CAF launched Operation Mobile, an evacuation mission in response to the First Libyan Civil War. On March 19, the operation expanded to include air and maritime combat missions to support the 2011 military intervention in Libya to enforce UN Security Council Resolution 1973. NATO assumed command of the multinational coalition through Operation Unified Protector, with Lieutenant General Charles Bouchard of the RCAF appointed as operational commander. The coalition enforced a no-fly zone to prevent pro-Gaddafi forces from conducting air attacks on anti-Gaddafi forces and civilian areas.

thumb|upright|left|RCAF CF-18 Hornets refuelling from a British tanker during the [[First Libyan Civil War in 2011.]]

At its peak, 655 Canadians were deployed on Operation Mobile, including seven CF-18 fighter jets. The frigate , already in the Mediterranean as a part of Standing NATO Maritime Group 1, also patrolled Libya's coast. In May 2011, Charlottetown came under hostile fire from a shore battery, marking the first attack on a Canadian warship since the Korean War.

Mali War

After insurgent groups took control of parts of Mali, the Malian government requested military aid from France in January 2013. France sought assistance from NATO allies to support its operation in Mali, including Canada, which initially provided a C-17 Globemaster III transport aircraft. From 2015 to 2022, the CAF supported French counter-insurgency operations in the Sahel, deploying over 1,250 personnel for helicopter medical evacuations from 2018 to 2019. The CAF began a phased withdrawal from Mali in 2019 as the Romanian Armed Forces assumed responsibility the operation's helicopter medevacs. All remaining CAF personnel were withdrawan from Mali in November 2023.

War against the Islamic State

thumb|A RCAF CF-18 Hornet breaks away from a [[United States Air Force|USAF KC-135 Stratotanker, while on mission in support of Operation Impact.]]

In September 2014, Canada joined a global coalition against the Islamic State. From November 2014 to February 2016, Canadian CF-18s conducted 251 airstrikes in Iraq and five in Syria. In February 2016, the CAF reoriented its mission from combat operations to training, reducing the size of its mission. The mission deployments are based at a logistics hub in Kuwait and include training missions in Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon. Another Canadian special forces operator was involved in Talon Anvil, a 20-person USAF special operations group criticized for bypassing rules intended to safeguard civilians, resulting in hundreds of non-combatant deaths.

Renewed Arctic focus

thumb| demonstrates its icebreaking capabilities during its maiden deployment in the [[Northwest Passage, 2021]]

In the 2020s, Canada renewed its military focus on the Arctic as part of its broader Arctic policy, citing security concerns over Russia and China. However, delays in completing the Nanisivik Naval Facility on Baffin Island, commissioned in 2007, has left a gap in Canada's Arctic capabilities. To address this, Canada announced major investments including 88 F-35 fighter jets, eight icebreaking ships, and 12 under-ice submarines. Arctic operating hubs were also planned for Yellowknife, Iqaluit, and Inuvik. However, the potential land impact of these initiatives raised concerns among Indigenous communities, with Inuit leaders calling for meaningful consultation and involvement in decision-making process.

Peacekeeping efforts

thumb|alt=a person in a military uniform wearing a United Nations blue helmet |Canadian peacekeeper in 1976 wearing the distinctive [[flag of Canada and UN blue helmet]]

Canada has participated in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN effort from its inception to 1989. Over 125,000 Canadians served as peacekeepers, with around 130 Canadians having died during these operations. Canada's support for multilateralism and internationalism are closely tied to its peacekeeping efforts.

Canada's role in the development of and participation in peacekeeping during the 20th century shaped its reputation as a positive middle power. Canada's successful mediation of the 1956 Suez Crisis gave it credibility as a country committed to the common good. The Canadian public increasingly identified peacekeeping as the country's foremost contribution to international affairs.

Canada faced controversy over its involvement in some peacekeeping missions, prompting a military reassessment in the late 1990s. By the 21st century, Canadian involvement in UN peacekeeping greatly declined, with its peacekeeping efforts reallocated to UN-sanctioned operations through NATO. This shift resulted in more militarized and lethal peacekeeping operations, rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.

References

External links

Canadian Military History Gateway – Government of Canada
Canadian Military History – Library and Archives Canada
Canadian Military History – Laurier Centre for Military Strategic and Disarmament Studies, Wilfrid Laurier University
Canadian Military History
War and the Foundation of Canada, Canadian War Museum
War & Conflict at CBC Archives