Maqama

right|thumb|200px|The 7th Maqāma of [[Al-Hariri of Basra|Al-Hariri, illustration by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti from the 1237 manuscript (BNF ms. arabe 5847).]]The maqāma (Arabic: مقامة [maˈqaːma], literally "assembly"; plural maqāmāt, مقامات [maqaːˈmaːt]) is an (originally) Arabic prosimetric literary genre of picaresque short stories originating in the tenth century C.E. The maqāmāt are anecdotes told by a fictitious narrator which typically follow the escapades of a roguish protagonist as the two repeatedly encounter each other in their travels. The genre is known for its literary and rhetorical complexity, as well as its alternating use of rhymed verse with a form of Arabic rhymed prose known as saj. The two most well-known authors within the genre are Badī' al-Zaman al-Hamadhāni, one of its earliest exponents, and al-Harīrī of Basra, whose maqāmāt are commonly held responsible for the genre's rise in popularity from the eleventh century onward. Interest in al-Hariri's Maqāmāt spread throughout much of the Islamic Empire, with translations and original works appearing in Hebrew, Syriac and Persian. Many authors still contribute to and draw inspiration from the literary genre of Maqāma to this day. These illustrations tend to be colored linework on a white background; they often depict the narrator and protagonist's escapades together, and so most of these compositions (unlike much of medieval Islamic Art) primarily feature human figures with notably expressive faces and gestures. In the case of the Maqāmāt al-Harīrī, the same narrator al-Harīth tells of his numerous encounters with the roguish protagonist Abu Zayd, in various cities and under varying circumstances.

There have been attempts to schematize loose plot outlines for the maqāmāt. J. Hämeen-Anttila puts forth the following pattern for a typical maqāma:<blockquote>Isnad → General Introduction → Link → Episode Proper → Recognition Scene → Envoi (→ Finale)</blockquote>Alain Qian expands on this structure somewhat. The isnad  (citation or "backing" used to verify the legitimacy of a statement, most commonly used in verifying hadith) lends a sense of credibility to the narrator, even if he is known to be fictional. In the general introduction the narrator tells the audience where he was and/or what he was doing in the city in question, providing context for the anecdote to follow. The link transitions from general introduction into the episode proper, where the events of the anecdote are relayed. After a time in the anecdote itself, the narrator and the audience (those of whom that are familiar with the genre) both recognize the protagonist of the anecdote as the recurring roguish character. After this recognition scene the maqāma is ended with envoi (summation in verse), followed occasionally by a finale in which the narrator and protagonist part ways. and others who credit the even earlier author Ibn Duraid (d. 933). Saj'<nowiki/> is an ornate form of rhyming prose interspersed with full verse, the use of which had thus far been restricted to religious and political works. This claim has been contested, with some evidence that the use of saj throughout a narrative was not unique to al-Hamadhānī's maqāmāt at the time of their writing. The second literary innovation al-Hamadhānī is credited for is the fact that unlike most works from his time or before it, al-Hamadhānī's maqāmāt are openly fictitious (rather than covertly fictitious or openly non-fictitious). though the genre would only gain most of its popularity after the creation of Maqāmāt al-Harīrī, a century after al-Hamadhānī's work had been created. The popularity of al-Harīrī's maqāmāt is such that they were worthy of memorization, recitation, and scholarly criticism during his lifetime, and he has been the most well-known author in the genre for most of its history.

Despite the genre's geographical reach, interest in the maqāma was confined to a relatively small population of wealthy literary scholars. These literati would attend small private recitations of al-Harīrī's maqāmāt, during which improvisations and embellishments were made as the reader or audience saw fit.

Some Hebrew maqāmāt made more significant departures, structurally and stylistically, from the classical Arabic maqāmāt of al-Hamadhānī and al-Harīrī. Joseph ibn Zabara (end of the 12th-beginning of 13th century), a resident of Barcelona and Catalan speaker, wrote the Sēfer sha'ashū'īm ("The Book of Delights"), in which the author, the narrator, and the protagonist are all Ibn Zabara himself, and in which the episodes are arranged in linear, not cyclical fashion, in a way that anticipates the structure of Spanish picaresque novels such as the anonymous Lazarillo de Tormes (1554) and Guzmán de Alfarache (1599) by Mateo Alemán.

Notable exponents

• Abu 'l-Ḥusayn Aḥmad b. Fāris (d. 1004) – 10th century poet and intellectual, who some scholars suggest developed the maqamat genre, even before Hamadani
• Badi' al-Zaman al-Hamadani – 11th century Arabo-Persian writer generally credited as the originator of the maqamat genre
• Al-Hariri of Basra – 11th century Arab scholar, poet and writer who elevated the maqamat to a major literary art
• Ibn Sharaf al-Qairawani – 11th century Amerian poet
• Abu Muhammad b. Malik al-Qururrubi – 11th century Amerian poet
• Abu al-Tahir Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Tamimi al-Saraqusti, known simply as Al-Saraqusti, (d. 1143) – a leading intellectual from Cordoba, al-Andalus, who imitated al-Hariri and whose work, "Maqamat Al-luzumiyah", has been described as a "masterpiece"
• Abu Abd Allah ibn Abi al-Khisal – Al-Andalus' scholar who wrote in the al-Hariri tradition
• Lisan al-Din ibn al-Khatib – Andalusi scholar who wrote in the al-Hariri tradition
• Al-Farthibsn Khaqan – Andalusian scholar who wrote in the al-Hariri tradition
• Qadhi Hamid al-Din Abu Bakr – 12th century Persian poet and writer
• Shayk Muslih al-Din Sadi – 13th century Persian poet and writer
• Joseph ibn Zabara (1140–1200) – Spanish-Jewish poet and satirist who composed a Hebrew maqamat
• Judah ibn Shabbetai – late 12th century Jewish-Spanish poet who composed several Hebrew versions of maqamat

Illustrated manuscripts

thumb|Congregation scene by [[Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti|al-Wasiti in the al-Ḥarīrī Maqāmāt showing a mosque with various animals.]]No known illustrations of maqamat exist prior to the 13th century. However, illustrations were added to maqamat to add grandeur and interest to the manuscripts, even though the text was usually performed orally in large groups, rather than read in solitude.

Common images across various Maqāmāt texts include: grand banquet events involving music and drinking, large groups congregated (sometimes in mosques), and general scenes involving the trickery of Abu Zayd as well as the frustration of Al Harith.

The human figures expressed in these illustrations tended to be quite large in relation to the architecture they were occupying as well as typically against a blank, white background.  The color palettes were typical of this time and were the schemes often employed in Qurans.

While some of the images refer to the previous text in the manuscript, scholars cannot necessarily determine the relationship between the image and the text when they do not appear to relate to each other. Although the illustrations have a clear correlation with the text, the text does not need these images to serve its purpose.  Therefore, these images can instead serve as a distraction to the reader rather than an aid. The difference of text and images is also used to cater to the taste of different groups of people. For example, the text is read by the audience who are experts of Arabic language and literature, while the images can be helpful for those with less formal education.  While the captions that were added to these illustrations did correspond to the text, they were often simplistic or only identified the figures in the image. This characteristic was irregular as compared to other manuscripts at the time such as the Mamluk Kalila wa Dimna.  To use an example by Bernard O'Kane, there is a Maqāmāt illustration that shows a large crowd with underfed children and an elderly woman.

However, the illustrations in Maqāmāt manuscripts also included influences from the Islamic world, notably from the city of Baghdad.  Specifically in the Istanbul Maqāmāt, several buildings do recall the architectural style and form of the city, notably shown through the Mustansiriya complex that appears to be replicated throughout the illustrations. The use of vegetal designs and specific rendering of authority figures also alludes back to the style of the Islamic world which can be seen through the Arabic translations of the Greek teachings of Dioscorides.

Modern examples in literature

Maqāma as a literary genre has continued to exist and be contributed to since its inception. Some authors may choose to follow the literary tradition of the genre as closely as possible, while others make use of only some of the features of classical maqāma, to different ends such as parody, entertainment, or colloquialization of the genre. Omri lists the following modern examples of maqāma:

• Majama' al-Bahrayn, (1856) collection by al-Yaziji (d. 1871)
• Hadith Issa ibn hisham (1901) by Muhammad al-Muwahili
• Al-Saq 'ala al-Saq (1855) by Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq (d. 1887)
• Maqāmāt Bayram al-Tunisi (d. 1961)

alt=Black and white photograph of Egyptian poet Bayram al-Tunisi.|thumb|Egyptian poet Bayram al-Tunisi (1893-1961).

In addition to these, many works of modern Arabic literature may only vaguely refer to maqāma or use its narrative structure as a framing device for translations of other works.