Manichaeism (; in ; ) was a major world religion founded in the third century AD by the Parthian Iranian prophet Mani (216–274) in the Sasanian Empire. It taught an elaborate dualistic cosmology describing the struggle between a good spiritual world of light, and an evil material world of darkness. Through an ongoing process in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of the divine.
Mani's teachings were intended to integrate, succeed, and surpass the "partial truths" of various prior faiths and belief systems, including Ancient Babylonian and other Mesopotamian traditions, Ancient Greek Traditions, Greco-Roman mystery traditions, Platonism, Iranian and Zoroastrian traditions, Brahminism, Sramanic traditions including Jainism and Buddhism, both Hellenistic and Rabbinic Jewish traditions, and Christian traditions including Marcionite, Bardaisanite, and Elkesaite. Most forms of Manichaeism viewed Mani as the final prophet sent after succession of various prophets most prominently Zoroaster, The Buddha, and Jesus, each of whose teachings were later corrupted and distorted by people like Devadatta and Judas Iscariot. The canon of Manichaean scripture included seven works originally written in Syriac and attributed to Mani, who was said to have illustrated a canonical book of pictures. Manichaean sacramental rites included prayers, almsgiving, fasting, and most centrally the daily ritual meal of the elect. Communal life centered on confession and the singing of hymns.
With its message of universal salvation and emphasis on active proselytism, Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread throughout Aramaic-speaking regions, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East. It thrived between the third and seventh centuries AD, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as Roman Iberia. Before the spread of Islam, Manichaeanism was briefly the main rival to early Christianity. It was increasingly persecuted both by the Roman state and the nascent Christian church, largely disappearing from Roman lands by the end of the sixth century.
Manichaeism survived and expanded in the East. It maintained its historic presence in West Asia until being repressed by the latter Abbasid Caliphate rulers in the 10th century. Trade and missionary activity brought Manichaeism to Tang China in the seventh century, where it developed into its own local form. Manichaeism was the official religion of the Uyghur Khaganate until its collapse in 830; shortly thereafter, it was banned by the Tang court but experienced a resurgence under the later Mongol Yuan dynasty during the 13th and 14th centuries. Continued persecution by Chinese emperors led to Manichaeism becoming subsumed into Buddhism and Taoism before the end of the 14th century.
Some historic Manichaean sites still exist in China, including the temple of Cao'an in Jinjiang, Fujian, and the religion may have influenced later movements in the European Middle Ages, including Paulicianism, Bogomilism, and Catharism. While most original Manichean writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.
Terminology
The spelling Manichaeism is a hypercorrection of Manichaism, which derives from Koine Greek () via Latin . The Greek word is built on (; 'Manichaeus'), one of the names of Mani in Greek sources.
In English, an adherent of Manichaeism is called a Manichaean, Manichean, or Manichee.
History
Life of Mani
thumb|Manichaean priests, writing at their desks. Eighth or ninth century manuscript from [[Gaochang, Tarim Basin, China.]]
thumb|[[Yuan dynasty|Yuan Chinese silk painting Mani's Birth]]
Mani was an Iranian born in 216 AD in or near Ctesiphon (now al-Mada'in, Iraq) in the Parthian Empire. According to the Cologne Mani-Codex, Mani's parents were members of the Jewish Christian Gnostic sect known as the Elcesaites.
Mani composed seven works, six of which were written in the late-Aramaic Syriac language. The seventh, the Shabuhragan, was written by Mani in Middle Persian and presented to the Sasanian emperor Shapur I by Mani himself. Although there is no evidence that Shapur I was a follower of Mani, he tolerated the spread of Manichaeism and refrained from persecuting it within his empire's boundaries.
According to Michel Tardieu, Mani invented the unique version of the Syriac script known as the Manichaean alphabet, which was used in all Manichaean works written within the Sasanian Empire, whether in Syriac or Middle Persian, as well as in most works written within the Uyghur Khaganate. The primary language of Babylonia—and the administrative and cultural language of the Empire—at that time was Eastern Middle Aramaic, which had three principle dialects: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, the language of the Babylonian Talmud; Mandaic, the language of Mandaeism; and Syriac, which was the language of Mani and the Syriac Christians.
thumb|A 14th-century illustration of the execution of [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]]
During the spread of Manichaeism, established religions like Zoroastrianism remained prevalent, while early Christianity was gaining both social and political influence. Despite having fewer followers, Manichaeism attracted the support of several high-ranking political figures. With the backing of the Sasanian Empire, Mani embarked on missionary expeditions. However, after failing to gain the favor of the next generation of Persian royalty and facing disapproval from the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani was imprisoned and ultimately died awaiting execution by the Persian emperor Bahram I. His death is estimated to have occurred around 276–277 AD.
Influences
thumb|[[Sermon on Mani's Teaching of Salvation, 13th-century Chinese Manichaean silk painting]]
Mani believed that the teachings of the Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus of Nazareth were incomplete; that his revelations were meant to be shared universally; and that his teachings comprised a new "religion of light". Manichaean writings indicate that Mani received revelations when he was 12 and again at 24, and that over this period he grew dissatisfied with the Elcesaites, the Gnostic sect of Jewish Christianity he was born into. Iain Gardner, in The Founder of Manichaeism, argues that Jain influence on Mani is likely due to the extreme asceticism and specific doctrines of Mahāvīra's community, making it even more plausible than influence from the Buddha. Richard C. C. Fynes, in 1996, argued that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of plant souls, were transmitted from Western Kshatrapa territories to Mesopotamia and then integrated into Manichaean beliefs. Mani wore colorful clothing, which was unusual for the time, and reminded some Romans of a stereotypical Persian magus or warlord, earning him ire in the Greco-Roman world.
Mani began preaching at an early age and was possibly influenced by contemporary Babylonian-Aramaic movements like Mandaeism; Aramaic translations of non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic works similar to those found at Qumran (e.g., the Book of Enoch); and by the Syriac dualist Gnostic writer Bardaisan (who lived a generation before Mani).
According to biographies preserved by ibn al-Nadim and the Persian polymath al-Biruni, Mani received a revelation as a youth from a spirit, whom he would later call his "Twin" (; ); (), in the Cologne Mani-Codex; "Double"; "Protective Angel"; or "Divine Self". This spirit taught him wisdom, which he later developed into a religion. It was his "twin" who brought Mani to self-realization. Mani claimed to be the Paraclete of the Truth promised by Jesus in the book of John 14:16 of the New Testament.
thumb|right|upright=0.75|[[Manichaean Painting of the Buddha Jesus depicts Jesus as a Manichaean prophet.]]
According to the scholar of Manichaeism Samuel N. C. Lieu, the theological roles of Jesus in Manichaeism were highly complex:
Augustine of Hippo also noted that Mani declared himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ". Manichaean tradition is noted to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of religious figures from previous eras, including the Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus himself.
Academics note that much of what is known about Manichaeism comes from later 10th- and 11th-century Muslim historians like al-Biruni and ibn al-Nadim in his al-Fihrist; the latter "ascribed to Mani the claim to be the Seal of the Prophets." However, given the Islamic milieu of Arabian Peninsula and Persia at the time, it stands to reason that Manichaeans would regularly assert in their evangelism that Mani, not Muhammad, was the Seal of the Prophets. In reality, for Mani, the metaphorical expression "Seal of Prophets" was not a reference to his finality in a lineage of prophets as it means in Islam, but rather as final to his followers (who attest to his message as a "seal").
thumb|10th century Manichaean Electae in [[Gaochang (Khocho), China]]
Other textual sources of Mani's scripture were the Aramaic Jewish Book of Enoch, 2 Enoch, and The Book of Giants. Mani quoted the latter directly and expanded upon it, making it—a specifically Manichaean version—one of the six original Syriac writings of the Manichaeans. Besides short references by non-Manichaean authors through the centuries, no original editions of the Manichaean Book of Giants were available until the 20th century.
Scattered fragments of both the original Aramaic Book of Giants, which was analyzed and published by Józef Milik in 1976, and the Manichaean version of the same name (analyzed and published by Walter Bruno Henning in 1943) were discovered along with the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Judaean Desert in the 20th century and the Manichaean writings of the Uyghur Manichaean kingdom in Turpan. Henning wrote in his analysis of them: