is an ancient writing system that uses Chinese characters to represent the Japanese language. It was the first known kana system to be developed as a means to represent the Japanese language phonetically. The date of the earliest usage of this type of kana is not clear, but it was in use since at least the mid-7th century. The name "man'yōgana" derives from the Man'yōshū, a Japanese poetry anthology from the Nara period written with man'yōgana.
Texts using the system also often use Chinese characters for their meaning, but man'yōgana refers to such characters only when they are used to represent a phonetic value. The values were derived from the contemporary Chinese pronunciation, but native Japanese readings of the character were also sometimes used. For example, (whose character means 'tree') could represent (based on Middle Chinese ), , or (meaning 'tree' in Old Japanese).
Simplified versions of man'yōgana eventually gave rise to both the hiragana and katakana scripts, which are used in Modern Japanese.
Origin
Scholars from the Korean kingdom of Baekje are believed to have introduced the man'yōgana writing system to the Japanese archipelago. The chronicles Kojiki and the Nihon Shoki both state so; though direct evidence is hard to come by, scholars tend to accept the idea.
A possible oldest example of man'yōgana is the iron Inariyama Sword, which was excavated at the Inariyama Kofun in 1968. In 1978, X-ray analysis revealed a gold-inlaid inscription consisting of at least 115 Chinese characters, and this text, written in Chinese, included Japanese personal names, which were written for names in a phonetic language. This sword is thought to have been made in the year (471 AD in the commonly accepted theory).
There is a strong possibility that the inscription of the Inariyama Sword may be written in a version of the Chinese language used in Baekje.
Principles
Man'yōgana uses kanji characters for their sounds, not their meanings. There was no standard system for choice of kanji, and different ones could be used to represent the same sound, with the choice made on the whims of the writer. By the end of the 8th century, 970 kanji were in use to represent the 90 morae of Japanese. For example, the Man'yōshū poem 17/4025 was written as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Man'yōgana
| || || || ||
|-
! Katakana
| || || || ||
|-
! Modern
| || || || ||
|-
! Romanized
| || || || ||
|-
! Translation
| From the Shiotsu road, || As I simply cross over, || The sea of Hakui || Is calm in the morning stillness. ||Oh, if only I had a ship's rudder.
|}
In the poem, the sounds mo () and shi () are written with multiple, different characters. All particles and most words are represented phonetically ( tada, asa), but the words ji (), umi () and funekaji () are rendered semantically.
In some cases, specific syllables in particular words are consistently represented by specific characters. That usage is known as Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai and usage has led historical linguists to conclude that certain disparate sounds in Old Japanese, consistently represented by differing sets of man'yōgana characters, may have merged since then.
Types
In writing which utilizes man'yōgana, kanji are mapped to sounds in a number of different ways, some of which are straightforward and others which are less so.
Shakuon kana () are based on a Sino-Japanese on'yomi reading, in which one character represents either one mora or two morae.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Shakuon kana 借音仮名
! Morae !! 1 character, complete !! 1 character, partial
|-
| 1 || ||
|-
| 2 ||colspan=2|
|}
Shakkun kana () are based on a native kun'yomi reading, one to three characters represent one to three morae. A phenomenon similar to man'yōgana, called , still occurs, where words (including loanwords) are spelled out using kanji for their phonetic value. Examples include , , and .
thumb|400px|left|Katakana with man'yōgana equivalents (segments of man'yōgana adapted into katakana highlighted)
{| class="wikitable" lang="ja"
|+<span lang="en">Katakana's man'yōgana<br /><small>including obsolete syllabograms<br/>Man'yōgana which are a common source for Hiragana and Katakana are highlighted</small></span>
!
!title="vowel"| –!!colspan=2|K!!S!!colspan=2|T!!N!!H!!M!!Y!!R!!W
|-
!rowspan=2|a
|阿||colspan=2 style="background:#BBF"|加||散||colspan=2|多||style="background:#BBF"|奈||八||style="background:#BBF"|末||style="background:#BBF"|也||style="background:#BBF"|良||style="background:#BBF"|和
|-
|ア||colspan=2|カ||サ||colspan=2|タ||ナ||ハ||マ||ヤ||ラ||ワ
|-
!rowspan=2|i
|伊||style="background:#BBF"|機||style="background:#BBF"|幾||style="background:#BBF"|之||colspan=2|千||style="background:#BBF"|仁||style="background:#BBF"|比||三|| ||style="background:#BBF"|利||井
|-
|イ||colspan=2|キ||シ||colspan=2|チ||ニ||ヒ||ミ|| ||リ||ヰ
|-
!rowspan=2|u
|style="background:#BBF"|宇||colspan=2 style="background:#BBF"|久||須||州||style="background:#BBF"|川||style="background:#BBF"|奴||style="background:#BBF"|不||牟||style="background:#BBF"|由||流||
|-
|ウ||colspan=2|ク||ス||colspan=2|ツ||ヌ||フ||ム||ユ||ル||
|-
!rowspan=2|e
|江||colspan=2|介||style="background:#BBF"|世||colspan=2 style="background:#BBF"|天||style="background:#BBF"|祢||style="background:#BBF"|部||style="background:#BBF"|女||江||style="background:#BBF"|礼||style="background:#BBF"|恵
|-
|エ||colspan=2|ケ||セ||colspan=2|テ||ネ||ヘ||メ||エ||レ||ヱ
|-
!rowspan=2|o
|style="background:#BBF"|於||colspan=2 style="background:#BBF"|己||style="background:#BBF"|曽||colspan=2 style="background:#BBF"|止||style="background:#BBF"|乃||style="background:#BBF"|保||style="background:#BBF"|毛||與||style="background:#BBF"|呂||乎
|-
|オ||colspan=2|コ||ソ||colspan=2|ト||ノ||ホ||モ||ヨ||ロ||ヲ
|-
!rowspan=2 title="consonant"|–
| ||colspan=2| || ||colspan=2| ||尓 || || || || ||
|-
| ||colspan=2| || ||colspan=2| ||ン || || || || ||
|}
thumb|400px|left|Development of hiragana from man'yōgana
{| class="wikitable" lang="ja"
|+<span lang="en">Hiragana's man'yōgana<br /><small>including obsolete syllabograms<br/>Man'yōgana which are a common source for Hiragana and Katakana are highlighted</small></span>
!
!title="vowel"| –!!colspan=2|K!!S!!T!!N!!H!!M!!Y!!R!!W
|-
!rowspan=2|a
|安||colspan=2 style="background:#BBF"|加||左||太||style="background:#BBF"|奈||波||style="background:#BBF"|末||style="background:#BBF"|也||style="background:#BBF"|良||style="background:#BBF"|和
|-
|あ||colspan=2|か||さ||た||な||は||ま||や||ら||わ
|-
!rowspan=2|i
|以||style="background:#BBF"|機||style="background:#BBF"|幾||style="background:#BBF"|之||知||style="background:#BBF"|仁||style="background:#BBF"|比||美|| ||style="background:#BBF"|利||爲
|-
|い||colspan=2|き||し||ち||に||ひ||み|| ||り||ゐ
|-
!rowspan=2|u
|style="background:#BBF"|宇||colspan=2 style="background:#BBF"|久||寸||style="background:#BBF"|川||style="background:#BBF"|奴||style="background:#BBF"|不||武||style="background:#BBF"|由||留
|
|-
|う||colspan=2|く||す||つ||ぬ||ふ||む||ゆ||る
|
|-
!rowspan=2|e
|衣||colspan=2|計||style="background:#BBF"|世||style="background:#BBF"|天||style="background:#BBF"|祢||style="background:#BBF"|部||style="background:#BBF"|女||江||style="background:#BBF"|礼||style="background:#BBF"|恵
|-
|え||colspan=2|け||せ||て||ね||へ||め||𛀁||れ||ゑ
|-
!rowspan=2|o
|style="background:#BBF"|於||colspan=2 style="background:#BBF"|己||style="background:#BBF"|曽||style="background:#BBF"|止||style="background:#BBF"|乃||style="background:#BBF"|保||style="background:#BBF"|毛||与||style="background:#BBF"|呂||遠
|-
|お||colspan=2|こ||そ||と||の||ほ||も||よ||ろ||を
|-
!rowspan=2 title="consonant"|–
| ||colspan=2| || || ||无|| || || || ||
|-
| ||colspan=2| || || ||ん|| || || || ||
|}
Example
The following example is from the second chapter of Nihon Shoki, one of two songs associated with the Emishi people written in Western Old Japanese.
<blockquote>
比佐迦多能<br>
ひさかたの<br>
pîsa kata n-ö <br>
<br>
阿麻遅波等保斯 <br>
あまぢはとほし<br>
ama-N-ti pa töpo-si <br>
<br>
奈保奈保爾 <br>
なほなほに <br>
napo napo n-i <br>
<br>
伊弊爾可弊利提 <br>
いへにかへりて<br>
ipê-ni kapêr-i-te<br>
<br>
奈利乎斯麻佐爾 <br>
なりをしまさに<br>
nari-wo s-i-[i] mas-an-i
</blockquote>
See also
- Ateji
- Syllabogram
- Idu script, Korean analogue
References
Citations
Works cited
External links
- An extensive list of man’yōgana arranged according to the characters, and not their readings
- Tomasz Majtczak: "How are we supposed to write with something like that? Early employment of the Chinese script to write Japanese as exemplified by the Man'yōshū ".