Majapahit (; <small>(eastern and central dialect)</small> or <small>(western dialect)</small>), also known as Wilwatikta (; , ), was a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia based on the island of Java (in modern-day Indonesia). At its greatest extent, following significant military expansions, the territory of the empire and its tributary states covered almost the entire Nusantara archipelago, spanning both Asia and Oceania. After a civil war that weakened control over the vassal states, the empire slowly declined before collapsing in 1527 due to an invasion by the Sultanate of Demak. The fall of Majapahit saw the rise of Islamic kingdoms in Java.
Established by Raden Wijaya in 1292, Majapahit rose to power after the Mongol invasion of Java and reached its peak during the era of the queen Tribhuvana and her son Hayam Wuruk, whose reigns in the mid-14th century were marked by conquests that extended throughout Southeast Asia. This achievement is also credited to the famous prime minister Gajah Mada. According to the Nagarakṛtāgama written in 1365, Majapahit was an empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea; The nature of Majapahit's relations and influence upon its overseas vassals and also its status as an empire still provokes discussion. Its influence extended beyond the modern territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies.
Etymology
thumb|left|A [[Aegle marmelos|maja fruit growing near Trowulan. The bitter-tasting fruit is the origin of the kingdom's name.]]
The name Majapahit (sometimes also spelled to reflect Javanese pronunciation), derives from Javanese, meaning "bitter ". German orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that the element comes from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos, an Indonesian tree. Majapahit is also referred to by the Sanskrit-derived synonym (). Toponyms containing the word are common in the area in and around Trowulan (e.g. Mojokerto), as it is a widespread practice in Java to name an area, a village or settlement with the most conspicuous or abundant tree or fruit species found in that region. The 16th-century chronicle records a legend linked to the establishment of a new settlement in the forest of Trik by Raden Wijaya in 1292. It was said that the workers clearing the Trik forest encountered some trees and consumed their bitter-tasting fruit which then gave its name to the village.
Strictly speaking, the name Majapahit refers to the kingdom's capital, but today it is common to refer to the kingdom by its capital's name. In Javanese primary sources, the kingdom as an extended territory is generally referred to not as Majapahit but rather as ("land of Java") in Old Javanese or ("country of the island of Java") in Sanskrit.
Historiography
Archaeological evidence
Compared to contemporary societies elsewhere in Asia, little physical evidence of Majapahit remains. Majapahit did produce physical evidence: the main ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in the Trowulan area, which was the royal capital of the kingdom. The area has become the centre for the study of Majapahit history. The Trowulan archaeological site was first documented in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant-Governor of British Java of the East India Company from 1811 to 1816. He reported the existence of "ruins of temples... scattered about the country for many miles", and referred to Trowulan as "this pride of Java". Aerial and satellite imagery has revealed an extensive network of canals crisscrossing the Majapahit capital. Findings from April 2011 indicate the Majapahit capital was much larger than previously believed after some artefacts were uncovered.
Inscriptions
While significant details about the history of Majapahit remain vague,
The Majapahit dynasty is described in royal inscriptions such as Kudadu (issued in 1294), Sukhamerta (1296), Tuhanyaru (1323), Gajah Mada (1351), Waringin Pitu (1447) and Trailokyapuri (1486). These sources help us to clarify the family relationships and chronologies of the Majapahit rulers, as well as to correct certain errors found in the Pararaton. A few inscriptions found outside Java, such as the Pura Abang C inscription discovered in northern Bali, offer conclusive evidence that these areas were under Majapahit control during the late 14th century. Both of these chronicles survive as 19th- or 20th-century palm-leaf manuscripts. The Deśavarṇana (also known as Nagarakretagama) is an Old Javanese eulogy written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk, after which some events are covered narratively. cited in The Ming Veritable Records () provide supporting evidence for specific events in Majapahit history, such as the Regreg War.
History
Formation
After the Pamalayu campaign to conquer the Melayu Kingdom in Sumatra from 1275–1292, the kingdom of Singhasari became the most powerful polity in the region. Shortly after, Singhasari was directly challenged by Emperor Kublai Khan, the Khagan of the Mongol Empire and emperor of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China, who sent emissaries demanding tribute. The king of Singhasari, King Kertanagara, refused to pay the tribute and mutilated a Yuan minister's face before sending him back to China. Enraged, Emperor Kublai Khan sent a massive expedition of 30,000 soldiers and 1,000 ships to Java as a punitive expedition in 1293.
Mongol invasion
thumb|Painting of a 14th-century [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan junk. Similar ships were sent by the Yuan in their naval armada.]]
By the time that the Yuan army returned to Java to exact their revenge, however, King Kertanagara was already dead; he had been killed by Jayakatwang, the (Duke) of the Kingdom of Kediri, a vassal state of Singhasari. Meanwhile, King Kertanegara's son-in-law, Raden Wijaya, had been pardoned by the usurper King Jayakatwang with the aid of Aria Wiraraja, the Regent of Madura, and was given timberland in Trowulan as consolation. Raden Wijaya built a new settlement there, naming the village Majapahit after a type of fruit () growing there that had a bitter taste (). Thus, when the Yuan army arrived, Raden Wijaya allied himself with them to fight against King Jayakatwang. Once King Jayakatwang had been defeated, Raden Wijaya launched a surprise attack and turned against his former Yuan allies. The Yuan army was forced to withdraw in confusion, as they were in hostile territory and their ships were constantly being attacked. It was also their last chance to catch the monsoon winds home; otherwise, they would have had to wait for another six months.
The first king, Kertarajasa Jayawardhana
thumb|left|upright|King [[Kertarajasa portrayed as Harihara, amalgamation of Shiva and Vishnu. Originally located at Candi Simping, Blitar, today it is displayed in National Museum.]]
In 1293, Raden Wijaya founded a stronghold with the capital Majapahit.
The new Majapahit kingdom faced challenges. Some of Kertarajasa's most trusted men, including Ranggalawe, Sora, and Nambi, rebelled against him, though unsuccessfully. It was suspected that the Mahapati Halayudha had set a conspiracy to overthrow all of his rivals in the court by enticing them to revolt against the king, while he gained king's favor and thus attained the highest position in the government. However, following the death of the last rebel Kuti, Halayudha's treachery was exposed, and he was subsequently captured, jailed, and sentenced to death.
According to tradition, King Jayanegara was notorious for his immorality. One of his distasteful acts was his desire to take his half-sisters, Gitarja and Rajadewi, as wives. Since Javanese tradition abhorred the practice of half-siblings marrying, the council of royal elders spoke strongly against the king's wishes. It was not clear what motivated Jayanegara's wishit might have been his way to ensure his claim to the throne by preventing rivals from being his half-sisters' suitors, although in the later period of the Majapahit court the custom of marriage among cousins was quite common. In the (Book of Kings), he was known as , or "weak villain". Around the time of Jayanegara's reign in the early 14th century, the Italian friar Odoric of Pordenone visited the Majapahit court in Java, noting that it was well-populated and filled with cloves, nutmeg, and many other spices. He also mentioned that the king of Java had seven vassals under him and engaged in several wars with the "khan of Cathay".
In 1328, King Jayanegara was murdered by his physician, Tanca, during a surgical operation. In complete mayhem and rage, Gajah Mada immediately killed Tanca. The motive behind this regicide was never clear. According to the , it was Tanca's revenge for the king sexually abusing his wife. However, according to the Balinese manuscript , the assassination was a stratagem crafted by Gajah Mada himself to rid the kingdom of an evil tyrant. Tradition mentions that the immoral, cruel, and abusive king often seduced and abused women, even the wives of his own subordinates. Other possible reason includes to protect the two princesses—King Jayanegara's half-sisters, Dyah Gitarja and Rajadewi Maharajasa, the daughters of his stepmother Queen Gayatri Rajapatni—from Jayanegara's cruelty. Ibn Battuta said that the women of Java rode horses, understood archery, and fought like men. He also recorded a story about a country called ' (also thought by some scholars to be Java), whose king opposed the Emperor of the Yuan dynasty in China, and waged war with the Chinese using numerous junks "until they come to terms with him on certain conditions".
Reign of Hayam Wuruk and Gajah Mada's conquest
thumb|260px|Rough estimations of Majapahit's conquest of the Indonesian archipelago ([[Nusantara (archipelago)|Nusantara) in the 13th century, its decline, and its eventual fall in the early 16th century. The existing historical records from several sources only partially describe the years listed, and are thus subject to revisions.]]
King Hayam Wuruk, also known as Rajasanagara, ruled Majapahit from 1350–1389. During this period, Majapahit attained its peak with the help of (prime minister) Gajah Mada, who maintained his power from 1313–1364. Under Gajah Mada's command, Majapahit conquered more territories and became the regional power. The attacking force consisted of four hundred large jong ships, and an uncountable number of malangbang barges and kelulus rowing boats. This expansion marked the greatest extent of Majapahit, making it one of the most influential empires in Indonesian history.
thumb|upright|left|A [[terracotta figure popularly believed by Minister of Education and national hero Mohammad Yamin to be a portrait of Gajah Mada, collection of the Trowulan Museum. His claim, however, is not backed by historical sources.]]
In 1355, Hayam Wuruk launched the third invasion of the Dayak-Maʼanyan Kingdom of Nan Sarunai in southern Borneo, at the time led by Raden Anyan (Datu Tatuyan Wulau Miharaja Papangkat Amas). According to the , a history of the kings of southern Borneo, this invasion was led by Ampu Jatmika from Kalingga in Kediri, along with his advisor Aria Megatsari, his general Tumenggung Tatah Jiwa, his minister Wiramartas, Patih Baras, Patih Basi, Patih Luhu, Patih Dulu, and his bodyguards Sang Panimba Segara, Sang Pembelah Batung, Sang Jampang Sasak, and Sang Pengeruntung 'Garuntung' Manau. Multiple battles took place, with the first battle in April 1358; killed Majapahit soldiers were burned in Tambak Wasi. Nansarunai captain Jamuhala was also killed in this battle. While prince Jarang and prince Idong hid in Man near Tabalong-kiwa river. Nansarunai soldiers were concentrated in Pulau Kadap before the second battle happened in December 1362. Casualties from this second battle were buried in Tambak in Bayu Hinrang. In this war Raden Anyan was killed, speared by Mpu Nala, and buried in Banua Lawas. In its place, Ampu Jatmika founded a Hindu kingdom state, Negara Dipa under Majapahit tributary, predecessor of Banjar. While surviving Javanese, Dayak, Madurese, and Bugis soldiers, sailors, metalsmiths of this war settled in Amuntai, Alabio, and Nagara.
Along with launching naval and military expeditions, the expansion of the Majapahit Empire involved diplomacy and alliance. Hayam Wuruk decided, probably for political reasons, to take princess Citra Rashmi (Dyah Pitaloka) of neighbouring Sunda Kingdom as his consort. The Sundanese took this proposal as an alliance agreement. In 1357 the Sunda king and his royal family came to Majapahit to accompany and marry his daughter to Hayam Wuruk. Tradition mentioned that the heartbroken princess committed suicide to defend the honour of her country. The Battle of Bubat, or the Pasunda Bubat tragedy, became the main theme of Kidung Sunda, also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan and Pararaton, but it was never mentioned in Nagarakretagama.
thumb|upright|[[Gajah Mada inscription, dated 1273 Śaka (1351 AD), mentioned about a sacred caitya building dedicated by Gajah Mada for the late King Kertanegara of Singhasari.]]
The Nagarakretagama, written in 1365, depicts a sophisticated court with refined taste in art and literature and a complex system of religious rituals. The poet describes Majapahit as the centre of a huge mandala extending from New Guinea and Maluku to Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. Local traditions in many parts of Indonesia retain accounts of 14th-century Majapahit's power in more or less legendary form. The direct administration of Majapahit did not extend beyond east Java and Bali, but challenges to Majapahit's claim to overlordship in outer islands drew forceful responses. a few years after the death of Gajah Mada, Majapahit sent a punitive naval attack against a rebellion in Palembang,
thumb|left|upright=1.6|Bronze cannon, called [[cetbang, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from c. 1470–1478 Majapahit. Note the Surya Majapahit emblem on the bronze cannon.]]
The nature of the Majapahit empire and its extent is subject to debate. It may have had limited or entirely notional influence over some of the tributary states, including Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan, and eastern Indonesia, over which authority was claimed in the Nagarakretagama. Geographical and economic constraints suggest that rather than a regular centralised authority, the outer states were most likely to have been connected mainly by trade connections, which were probably a royal monopoly. Two Muslim tombstones in Troloyo were dated from the 14th century (1368 AD, 1376 AD). The close proximity of the site with the kraton means there were Muslim people in close relation with the court.
Decline
Following Hayam Wuruk's death in 1389, Majapahit entered a period of decline with conflict over succession.
In 1299, the Kingdom of Singapura had been established, and following a failed attempt to take Singapore in 1350, Majapahit finally sacked and destroyed the Kingdom in 1398, after approximately a month-long siege by three hundred jong war ships and 200,000 men. The last king, Parameswara, fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula to establish the Malacca Sultanate in 1400.
Regreg War
A war of succession, called the Regreg War, is thought to have occurred from 1405 to 1406.
Wikramawardhana and Ming expedition
thumb|upright=1.36|The route of the voyages of Zheng He's fleet, including Majapahit ports
During the reign of Wikramawardhana, a series of Ming armada naval expeditions led by Zheng He, The Chinese intervened in the politics of the southern seas by supporting Thais against the declining Khmer Empire, supporting and installing allied factions in India, Sri Lanka and other places in Indian Ocean coasts. However, perhaps the most significant Chinese intervention was its support for the newly established Sultanate of Malacca as a rival and counter-weight to the Majapahit influence of Java. Although Pararaton listed her husband as Bhra Hyang Parameswara Ratnapangkaja, which suggests she remarried after Kemas Jiwa returned.
The reign of Suhita was the second time Majapahit was reigned by a queen regnant after her great-grandmother Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi. Her reign is immortalized in Javanese legend of Damarwulan, as it involves a maiden queen named Prabu Kenya in the story, and during Suhita's reign there was a war with Blambangan as stated in the legend.
In 1447, Suhita died and was succeeded by Kertawijaya, her brother. further weakening Majapahit's influence on the western part of the archipelago. Kertabhumi managed to stabilize this situation by allying with Muslim merchants, giving them trading rights on the north coast of Java, with Demak as its centre and in return asked for their loyalty to Majapahit. This policy boosted the Majapahit treasury and power but weakened Hindu-Buddhism as its main religion because Islamic proselytizing spread faster, especially in Javanese coastal principalities. Hindu-Buddhist followers' grievances later paved the way for Ranawijaya to defeat Kertabumi.
Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478, traditionally described in sinengkalan or chandrasengkala (chronogram) Sirna ilang kertaning bhumi that is correspond to 1400 Śaka, to 1527. The year 1478 was the year of Sudarma Wisuta war, when Ranawijaya's army under general Udara (who later became vice-regent) breached Trowulan defences and killed Kertabumi in his palace, but not the actual fall of Majapahit itself as a whole.
Demak sent reinforcements under Sunan Ngudung, who later died in battle and was replaced by Sunan Kudus, but they came too late to save Kertabumi although they managed to repel the Ranawijaya army. This event is mentioned in Trailokyapuri (Jiyu) and Petak inscription, where Ranawijaya claimed that he already defeated Kertabhumi and reunited Majapahit as one Kingdom. Ranawijaya ruled from 1474 to 1498 with the formal name Girindrawardhana, with Udara as his vice-regent. This event led to the war between the Sultanate of Demak and Daha since Demak rulers were descendants of Kertabhumi.
During this period, Demak, being the dominant ruler of the Javanese coastal lands and Java as a whole, seized the region of Jambi and Palembang in Sumatra from Majapahit. Another paper noted that the reasons for the attacks Demak (led by Adipati Yunus) to Majapahit (Girindrawardhana period) are a backlash against Girindrawardhana who had defeated Adipati Yunus' grandfather Prabu Bhre Kertabumi (Prabu Brawijaya V).
With the fall of Majapahit, crushed by Demak in 1527, and with the fall of Majapahit, a large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of Bali. The refugees fled to the east to avoid Demak retribution for their support for Ranawijaya against Kertabhumi.
Demak came under the leadership of Raden (later crowned as Sultan) Patah, who was acknowledged as the legitimate successor of Majapahit. According to Babad Tanah Jawi and Demak tradition, the source of Patah's legitimacy was because their first sultan, Raden Patah, was the son of Majapahit king Brawijaya V with a Chinese concubine. Another argument supports Demak as the successor of Majapahit; the rising Demak sultanate was easily accepted as the nominal regional ruler, as Demak was the former Majapahit vassal and located near the former Majapahit realm in eastern Java.
Demak established itself as the regional power and the first Islamic sultanate in Java. After the fall of Majapahit, the Hindu kingdoms in Java only remained in Pasuruan, Panarukan, and Blambangan on the eastern edge and Sunda Kingdom Pajajaran in the western part. Gradually Hindu communities began to retreat to the mountain ranges in East Java and also to the neighbouring island of Bali. A small enclave of Hindu communities remain in the Tengger mountain range.
Culture
The Majapahit capital of Trowulan was grand and known for its great annual festivities. The main event of the administrative calendar took place on the first day of the month of Caitra (March–April), the first month of the lunar calendar, when representatives from all territories paying tax or tribute to Majapahit came to the capital to pay court. Majapahit's territories were roughly divided into three types: the palace and its vicinity; the areas of east Java and Bali which were directly administered by officials appointed by the king; and the outer dependencies which enjoyed substantial internal autonomy.
<gallery mode="packed" widths="110" heights="160">
File:Wringin Lawang, Trowulan.jpg|Wringin Lawang, the red brick split gate in Trowulan, believed to be the entrance of an important compound.
File:The Great King of Java and His Seven Vassals.png|The king of Java and his seven vassal kings, as imagined in a 15th-century English manuscript containing the accounts of Friar Odoric.
File:Plate V No 22 Relief of Majapahit in Trowulan.jpg|Relief from Trowulan: Countryside, walled , ramparts, and temple.
File:Reliëf uit Trowoelan bij Modjokerto, KITLV 183371.tiff|A relief from Trowulan, showing several walled compounds and a larger wall to their north.
</gallery>
The first European record about Majapahit came from the travel log of the Italian Mattiussi, a Franciscan friar. In his book Travels of Friar Odoric of Pordenone, he visited several places in today's Indonesia: Sumatra, Java, and Banjarmasin in Borneo, between 1318 and 1330. He was sent by the Pope to launch a mission into the Asian interiors. In 1318 he departed from Padua, crossed the Black Sea into Persia, all the way across Calcutta, Madras, and Sri Lanka. He then headed to Nicobar island to Sumatra, before visiting Java and Banjarmasin. He returned to Italy by land through Vietnam, China, all the way through the silkroad to Europe in 1330.
thumb|An armored horse rider, two armored warriors, and a noble figure. From Penataran temple, ca. 1347.
In his book, he mentioned that he visited Java without explaining the exact place he had visited. He said that king of Java ruled over seven other kings (vassals).