Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)

Lokakṣema (लोकक्षेम, ) (flourished 147–189) was a Kushan Buddhist monk who travelled to China during the Han dynasty and is one of the first known translators of Mahayana religious texts into any language.

Biography

Details of Lokakṣema's life come to us via a short biography by Sengyou (僧祐; pinyin: Sēngyòu; 445–518 CE) and his text "Collected Records concerning the Tripitaka" (出三藏記集 Chu sanzang jìjí, T2145).

The name 婁迦讖 is usually rendered in Sanskrit as Lokakṣema, though this is disputed by some scholars, and variants such as Lokakṣama have been proposed. In particular the character 讖 can be read as chen or chan. Sengyou refers to him as Zhīchèn (). The Zhī () prefix added to his Chinese name suggests that Lokaksema was of Yuezhi () ethnicity. He is traditionally said to have been a Kushan, though the Chinese term Yuezhi covered a broad area of what is now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.

Given his background, Lokaksema was very likely to have been multilingual and have had knowledge of various languages including Gandhari Prakrit which was used as the language of religion, administration, and commerce in the North Western parts of India. It is speculated however by the scholar, Paul Harrison, that his mother tongue was Bactrian.

Zürcher considers it reasonably certain that Lokakṣema translated the following:

T224. 道行般若經. A translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
T280. 佛說兜沙經. The Scripture on the Tusita Heaven, part of the proto-Avatamsaka Sutra
T313. 阿閦佛國經. Akṣohhya-vyūha
T350. 說遺日摩尼寶經. Kaśyapaparivrata
T418. 般舟三昧經. Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra
T458. 文殊師利問菩薩署經. Mañjuśrī's Inquiry Concerning the Bodhisattva Career.
T626. 阿闍世王經. Ajātaśatru Kaukṛtya Vinodana Sūtra
T807. 佛說內藏百寶經. The Hundred Jewels of the Inner Treasury.

According to Nattier, Harrison "expresses reservations" concerning the Akṣohhya-vyūha (T313), and considers that T418 is the product of revision and does not date from Lokakṣema's time. Based on evidence from Chinese catalogues of texts, Nattier suggests that T224 and T418 are representative of Lokakṣema and might stand as "core texts", i.e. as representative of his style of translating, although both show some signs of later editing. A second tier of texts—T280, T350, T458, and T807—all strongly resemble Lokakṣema's core texts, though with occasional anomalies. T624 and T626 form a third tier with more deviations from the distinctive style of Lokakṣema. If T313 was indeed a translation by Lokakṣema, it has been extensively revised by an unknown editor, though the prose sections are closer to his style than the verse.

Lost works

Several translations attributed to Lokakṣema have been lost:

Shoulengyan jing (a version of the Suramgama-samādhi-sutra, already lost in Sengyou's time)
Guangming sanmei jing "Sutra on the Samadhi of Luminosity"
Hu banniehuan jing "The Hu Parinirvāṇa Sutra"
Bo benjing ("The Original *Puṣya Sutra")

References

Citations

Sources

Nattier, Jan (2008). A Guide to the Earliest Chinese Buddhist Translations: Texts from the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms Periods, Bibliotheca Philologica et Philosophica, IRIAB Vol. X, 73–88;