List of pharaohs

The pharaohs were the monarchs of ancient Egypt from the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt 3100 BC, with several times of fragmentation and foreign rule. The specific title of "pharaoh" (pr-ꜥꜣ) was not used until the New Kingdom, 1400 BC, but it is retroactively applied to all Egyptian kings; the generic term for monarchs was "nesut" (nswt). In addition to these titles, pharaohs had a complex royal titulary that remained relatively constant during its 3000-year history, having up to five royal names.

Egypt was continually governed, at least in part, by native pharaohs for approximately 2500 years, until it was conquered by the Libyan 22nd dynasty, and subsequently, the Kingdom of Kush in the late 8th century BC, whose rulers adopted the pharaonic titulature and became the 25th Dynasty. Following 100 years of Kushite rule, Egypt experienced another century of independent native rule before being conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire. The last native pharaoh was Nectanebo II of the short-lived 30th Dynasty, which ended when the Persians conquered Egypt for a second time in 342 BC. The Persians were in turn conquered by the Macedonian Greeks of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, after which Egypt was ruled by the Hellenic pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Their rule came to an end with the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC, and pharaonic Egypt ceased to be an independent monarchy. However, Roman emperors continued to be accorded pharaonic titles by the Egyptians until the reign of Maximinus Daza in 313 AD.

The dates provided for most of Egypt's early history are only approximate and may vary depending on the author, sometimes by centuries. The names and order of kings is mostly based on the Digital Egypt for Universities database developed by the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology. For royal titles and hieroglyphs, see the handbook of Jürgen von Beckerath, as well as the website Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, which itself contains extensive bibliography.

Regnal numbers did not exist in ancient Egypt and is a modern way to distinguish pharaohs known by the same name.

Sources and chronology

Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records, including ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and historians alike call for caution regarding their credibility, exactitude, and completeness, many of which were written long after the reigns they report. An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another, and/or selective.

Given the lack of sources, it's impossible to fix exact dates for the early dynasties. However, most authors give dates around 3000 BC. According to computations derived from the Turin King List ( 1250 BC), the First Dynasty most likely began 3100 BC, ± 150 years. This appears to be supported by radiocarbon dating studies, which often show earlier dates. However, radiocarbon dating only gives broad approximations subject to several external factors. For instance, while the aforementioned study placed Den in the range of 2945–2904 BC, a 2023 study placed his accession earlier, in the range of 3011–2921 BC, nearly a century earlier.

Astronomical events, mainly the Sothic cycle, have also been used to try to fix "absolute dates", but these have their own set of problems. Richard Parker dated the accession of the 12th-dynasty pharaoh Senusret III to 1878 BC (with his 7th year falling in 1872 BC). However, other authors such as Rolf Krauss have refuted Parker's computations; Krauss instead dates Senusret's accession to 1837/36 BC (7th year in 1831/30 BC). Similarly, the accession Amenhotep I was dated 1550–1515 BC (9th year 1541–1506 BC). Scholars often use the Egyptian "high" chronology, which assumes these astronomical observations were made in a single place (at Memphis). While there is debate on its accuracy, the high chronology used by scholars such as Ian Shaw appears to be closer to the dates implied by radiocarbon dating.

Most pharaohs' reigns are not fully documented, leading to many discrepancies in reign lengths. A formal regnal dating system was not adopted until the Middle Kingdom, and the day following a coronation was automatically recorded as "Year 1", meaning that regnal years alone can't be used to calculate exact Julian years. Thus, it is impossible to determine exact dates even when some events can be securely dated. Dates with some certainty can only be given for the New Kingdom onwards, and only dates from the Late period can be securely dated and synchronized with other ancient chronologies.

Compare the chronological lists in , , , , , , and .

Ancient Egyptian king lists

Royal lists after the Fifth Dynasty give only the throne name of each pharaoh, which has often led to confusion in identifying particular kings. The most detailed king lists, the Abydos, Saqqara and Turin canons, date to the New Kingdom, also known as the Ramesside period. Unfortunately, most of these Ramesside lists are of little value for the early dynasties (from which they are separated by over 1000 years), as they feature corrupted names and often disagree with contemporary sources. Complete king lists were certainly made after the 20th dynasty, but they have been lost.

The following king lists are known:

Den seal impressions (1st Dynasty, 3000 BC); found on a cylinder seal in Den's tomb. It lists all 1st Dynasty kings from Narmer to Den by their Horus names.
Qa'a seal impressions (1st Dynasty, 2900 BC); found in Qa'a's tomb. It lists all eight kings of the 1st Dynasty by their Horus names.
Tomb of Sekhemkare (5th Dynasty, 2500 BC); records five kings from Khafre to Sahure; the contemporary tomb of Netjerpunesut also includes Djedefre.
Royal Annals of the Old Kingdom (5th Dynasty, 2400 BC); carved on an stele. Recorded the individual years of about 30 kings from Narmer to at least Kakai. Broken into small pieces, mostly known for the Palermo Stone.
Tomb of Seshemnefer III (5th Dynasty, 2400 BC); carved onto the walls of Seshemnefer's mastaba tomb. Not an actual king list; it mentions at least 7 kings from Sneferu to Nyuserre Ini.
Giza writing board (6th Dynasty, 2400 BC); painted on gypsum and cedar wood. Records 6 kings of various dynasties.
South Saqqara Stone (6th Dynasty, 2200 BC); carved on a black basalt slab. Recorded the reigns of the first 5 kings of the Sixth Dynasty; it was later reused as a sarcophagus lid and thus almost all of the original text is lost.
Wadi Hammamat king list (12th dynasty, 2000–1800 BC); records five kings of the Fourth Dynasty.
Karnak King List (18th Dynasty, 1450 BC); carved on limestone at the Festival Hall of Thutmose III. Lists 61 kings from Sneferu, but with no apparent order and omitting several names. 39 names have been lost.
Tomb of Amenmose (19th Dynasty, 1280 BC); lists Mentuhotep II and 11 kings from Ahmose I to Seti I.
Abydos King List (19th Dynasty, 1280 BC); carved at the Temple of Seti I. Very detailed, but omitting some kings from the First Intermediate Period and all from the Second Intermediate Period. Records a total of 76 kings from Menes to Seti I. A similar but damaged list is found in the Abydos temple of Ramesses II, Seti's son and successor.
Saqqara Tablet (19th Dynasty, 1250 BC), carved on limestone in a private tomb. Very detailed, lists 68 kings from Anedjib until Ramesses II.
Turin King List (19th Dynasty, 1250 BC); written on a papyrus dating to the reign of Ramesses II. Listed every known king with their exact reign length, and divided some of them into groups similar to Manetho's dynasties. The document itself is a sloppy copy of a much more detailed original, which is in turn based on much older sources. The document is today damaged and incomplete, with most of the last sections missing. The papyrus lists 223 kings, but only about of the names have survived. The original likely included further kings until Ramesses II.
Table of Qenhirkhopshef (19th Dynasty, 1250 BC); found in the Karnak complex. Lists 17 kings from Senakhtenre Ahmose to Ramesses II.
Tomb of Khabekhnet (19th Dynasty, 1250 BC); lists Mentuhotep II and five kings from Senakhtenre Ahmose to Amenhotep I alongside other family members.
Ramesseum king list (19th Dynasty, 1250 BC); carved in the mortuary temple of Ramesses II, lists Menes, Mentuhotep II and most of the New Kingdom pharaohs.
Medinet Habu king list (20th Dynasty, 1150 BC); carved in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III, very similar to the Ramesseum king list.
Tomb of Inherkhau (20th Dynasty, 1150 BC); records seven kings of the New Kingdom until Ramesses IV alongside other family members.
Genealogy of Ankhefensekhmet (22nd Dynasty, 750 BC); carved on a limestone dating to the reign of Shoshenq V, today damaged. Not an actual king list; it mentions at least 18 kings from Mentuhotep II to Psusennes I.

Manetho

Before the decipherment of Egyptian scripts in the early 19th century, Manetho's Aegyptiaca, written in Greek in the early 3rd century BC,

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|Nectanebo I Nakhtnebef

|Kheperkare

|Seized power in Sebennytos. Managed to stop a Persian invasion of the Nile.

| 380–362 BC (17–18 years)

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|Teos Djedhor Setep-en-Anhur

|Irimaatenre

|Son and brief co-ruler of Nectanebo I; was forced to abdicate as part of a general uproar against his heavy tax policies.

| 362–360 BC (1–2 years)

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|Nectanebo II Nakhthorhebyt Merihathor

|Snedjemibre Setepenanhur

|Last native ruler of Egypt until the Egyptian revolution of 1952; usurped the throne from his uncle. Managed to repel the Persians for a time, but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Pelusium, escaping to Nubia before disappearing. Later stories portrayed him as the secret father of Alexander the Great.

| 360–342 BC (17–18 years)

Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Achaemenid)

The second Persian domination lasted from 342 to 332 BC.

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|Artaxerxes III (Ochus) Artekhshesesh

|–

|Son of Artaxerxes II and grandson of Darius II, invaded Egypt in 351 BC. Described as a cruel tyrant by ancient sources; he was poisoned with his sons by a court official.

| 342–338 BC (3–4 years)

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|Artaxerxes IV (Arses) Artekhshesesh

|–

|Youngest son of Artaxerxes III, survived the conspiracy of Bagoas. Tried to poison the eunuch, but was murdered with his family.

|338–336 BC (2 years)

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|Darius III (Codoman) Deriush

|–

|Cousin of Arses, took the throne after forcing Bagoas to drink his own poison. Faced the invading forces of Alexander III of Macedon and was defeated at the Battles of Issus and then Gaugamela. Was ultimately murdered by his own men.

|336–332 BC (4 years)

Native rebels

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|Khabash

|Senensetepuniptah

|Led a revolt against the Persians around 338 BC; later remembered as a national hero.

| 338 BC (briefly)

Hellenistic period (332–30 BC)

The Macedonian Greeks under Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic period with his conquest of Persia and Egypt in 332 BC, creating one of the largest empires in history. However, this empire quickly fragmented after his sudden death in 323 BC, which led to the chaotic Wars of the Diadochi. Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, claimed the pharaonic titles and established the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the last and longest-reigning dynasty of Egypt. The former Persian territories were absorbed into the Hellenic Seleucid Empire, which bordered Egypt to the East. Both states would eventually fall to the Roman Republic over the course of the 1st century BC.

Thirty-second Dynasty (Argead)

The Argeads ruled Egypt from 332 to 305 BC. Like their predecessors, the Hellenistic rulers used the Sa-Ra title (nomen) to display their Egyptized personal names.

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|Alexander III "the Great" Aluksindres

|Setepenre Meryamun

|Succeeded his father Philip II of Macedon in 336 BC, at the age of 20. Conquered most of the known world at the time; he was received in Egypt as a liberator. Founded the city of Alexandria, the new capital and the first of many with his name. Died suddenly in Babylon, allegedly from a fever. Ptolemy I Soter buried him in Alexandria, although his tomb has not been found.

|November 332–11 June 323 BC (8 years, 7 months)

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|Philip III Arrhidaeus Pelupuisa

|Setepenre Meryamun

|Half-brother of Alexander, murdered by Olympias, the queen mother.

|323–317 BC (6 years)

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|Alexander IV Aluksindres

|Haaibre Setepenamun

|Posthumous child of Alexander; murdered with his mother by General Cassander.

|317–305 BC (12 years)

Thirty-third Dynasty (Ptolemaic)

The second Hellenistic dynasty, the Ptolemaic, ruled Egypt for nearly 275 years, from 305/4 BC to 30 BC. It was the longest-reigning dynasty of Egypt, followed closely by the Eighteenth. The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, better known simply as Cleopatra, who was successively the lover of Julius Caesar and, after his death, of Mark Antony, having children with both of them. She strove to create a dynastic and political union with Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Antony doomed their plans. Egypt was ultimately conquered by the Romans under Octavian, who would become the Roman emperor Augustus.

All members of the Ptolemaic dynasty shared the same names, but adopted one or several Greek epithets on accession. Regnal numbers are only a modern convention.

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|Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemis

|Setepenre Meryamun

|Friend and companion of Alexander, ruled as satrap after his death and proclaimed himself king in the midst of the Wars of the Diadochi. Stole Alexander's body and buried him in Alexandria, claiming to follow his last will. Commissioned the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders, and the Library of Alexandria. Died aged around 85.

|304–282 BC (22 years)

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|Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemis

|Userkare Meryamun

|Son of Ptolemy I Soter and Berenice I, named co-ruler in 284. Initially married to Arsinoe I, named Philadelphus ("sibling-loving") after marrying his own sister, Arsinoe II. Completed his father's projects in Alexandria. Died at the age of 62.

| 28 February 284– 28 January 246 BC (37 years, ~11 months)

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|Arsinoe II Philadelphos♀ Arsinat

|Khnemet Ibenmaat Meret Netjeru

|Sister-wife of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. She was given pharaonic titles (possibly posthumous), but was not recorded as sovereign by Hellenistic administration of the country.

| 273/2–July 270/68 BC

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|–

|Ptolemy Epigonos

|–

|Co-ruler of Ptolemy II Philadelphus; demoted after revolting with Timarchus of Miletus. Possibly a son of Arsinoe II, was allowed to rule Telmessos and died aged 60.

| 267–259 BC (8 years, under Ptolemy II)

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|Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah

|Iwaensenwy Netjerwy Setepenre Sekhemankhenamun

|Son of Ptolemy II Philadelphus and Arsinoe I; expanded Ptolemaic power and campaigned as far as Babylon, at the hearth of the Seleucid Empire.

|28 January 246– December 222 BC (23 years, ~11 months)

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|Berenice II Euergetis♀ Bereniket Netjeret Menkhet Meret Netjerut

|–

|Wife of Ptolemy III Euergetes, female vizier, and Queen regnant of Cyrene. She is attested to have pharaonic titles, but was not recorded as sovereign by Hellenistic administration of the country.

|never reigned

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|Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Tryphon "Physcon" Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah

|Iwaennetjerwyperwy Setepenptah Irymaatre Sekhemankhenamun

|Brother of Ptolemy VI Philometor, declared co-ruler in 170 BC alongside Cleopatra II. Nicknamed "the Fat" (Physcon); his reign was plagued by court intrigue. Expelled his co-rulers November 164, but was himself deposed a few months later. Restored in 145–130 and again in 127–116. Died on 28 June 116 BC, aged nearly 70.

|5 October 170–163 BC (1st reign: 13 years)

----145–130 BC (2nd reign: 15 years)

----127–28 June 116 BC (3rd reign: 11 years)

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|–

|Ptolemy Eupator

|–

|Child of Ptolemy VI Philometor, died shortly after being named co-ruler.

| March–July 152 BC (~4 months)

!10

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|Cleopatra II Philometor Soteira♀ Qleopadrat

|–

|First confirmed queen regnant of the dynasty. Sister-wife of Ptolemy VI Philometor, then wife of Ptolemy VIII Physcon, who briefly deposed her in late 164 BC. They reconciled in 145 BC, on the death of Ptolemy VI Philometor, but in 131 BC she deposed him and became sole ruler. She was deposed in 127 BC, but returned in early 124 BC. Then co-ruled alongside Cleopatra III, Ptolemy VIII Physcon, and briefly Ptolemy IX Soter until 116 BC. Had one of the longest reigns.

|5 October 170–164 BC (1st reign: 14 years)

----163–127 BC (2nd reign: 36 years)

----124–116 BC (3rd reign: 8 years)

!11

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|Cleopatra III Euergetis♀ Qleopadrat

|–

|Daughter of Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II, married her uncle-stepfather Ptolemy VIII Physcon. Declared co-ruler in 142/140 BC. Was exiled in 130 BC, but returned in 127 BC and became regent for her son Ptolemy IX Soter in 116 BC. In 107 BC, she deposed him in favour of another son, Ptolemy X Alexander I. Was killed during the ensuing civil war by Ptolemy X Alexander I.

| 140–130 BC (1st reign: ~10 years)

----127– September 101 BC (2nd reign: ~26 years)

!12

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|Ptolemy IX Soter II "Lathyros" Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah

|Iwaennetjermenekhnetjeret Meretmutesnedjetet Setepenptah Irimaatre Sekhemankhamun

|Son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III; nicknamed "chickpea" (Lathyros). Was exiled in 107 BC, but retook the throne on the death of Ptolemy X Alexander I.

|28 June 116– October 107 BC (1st reign: 9 years, 3 months)

---- November 88– December 81 BC (2nd reign: 7 years, ~1 month)

!13

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|Ptolemy X Alexander I Ptolemis Aleksentres

|Iwaennetjermenekhenetjeret Menkhetre Setepenptah Irimaatre Senenankhenamun

|Son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III, whom he married. Became senior ruler in 101 BC, after the death of Cleopatra III, alongside Berenice III. Was expelled from Alexandria by Ptolemy IX Soter, dying at sea while attempting to escape to Cyprus.

|September 107– May 88 BC (18 years, ~8 months)

!14

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|Berenice III♀ Irypatet Werethesut Birniket

|–

|Daughter of Ptolemy IX Soter. Named co-ruler with her uncle-husband Ptolemy X Alexander I. Was expelled in 88 BC, but was allowed to return in 81 BC as co-ruler of her father. Briefly ruled as sole monarch for 4 months in 80 BC before being killed by Ptolemy XI Alexander II.

| (1st reign: 12 years, ~7 months)

---- July 81– April 80 BC (2nd reign: ~9 months)

!15

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|Ptolemy XI Alexander II Ptolemis Aleksentres

|–

|The shortest-reigning pharaoh. Son of Ptolemy X Alexander I and Berenice III, installed as king with the support of the Roman dictator Sulla. Was killed on his 19th day by the Alexandrian mob after murdering his mother.

| April 80 BC (18 days)

!16

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|Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysus "Auletes" Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptahset

|Iwa'enpanetjernehem Setepenptah Irimaatenre Sekhemankhamun

|Son of Ptolemy IX Soter and a concubine (possibly Cleopatra IV); nicknamed "the Flautist" (Auletes). Deposed by Cleopatra VI and Berenice IV after an unpopular reign; later restored with the help of the Roman general Pompey. Left his official will in Rome.

| April 80– June 58 BC (1st reign: 22 years, ~2 months)

---- February 55– March 51 BC (2nd reign: 4 years, ~1 month)

!17

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|Cleopatra V Tryphaena♀ Qleopadrat

|–

|Daughter of Ptolemy IX Soter or Ptolemy X Alexander I, wife of Ptolemy XII Auletes, and mother of Berenice IV. Theorised to be the same person as Cleopatra VI; co-ruled with Ptolemy XII Auletes until her death or removal in 69 BC

| April 80– October 69 BC (11 years, ~6 months)

!18

|–

|Cleopatra VI Tryphaena II♀ Qleopadrat

|–

|Co-ruler with Berenice IV. Recorded by Porphyry of Tyre to be Berenice's sister, but most likely identical instead with her mother, Cleopatra V.

| June 58– August 57 BC (1 year, ~2 months)

!19

|–

|Berenice IV Epiphaneia♀ Bereniket

|–

|Daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes and Cleopatra V (VI). Proclaimed co-ruler in 58 BC; deposed and executed on the return of her father.

| June 58– February 55 BC (2 years, ~8 months)

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|–

|Seleucus Kybiosactes

|–

|The first husband of Berenice IV. Called her co-ruler by Eusebius. Died a week after the wedding, as a result of murder or illness.

| 57/56 BC

(1 week)

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|Archelaus

|The second husband of Berenice IV. He was called her co-ruler by Strabo and Eusebius, but there is no surviving evidence of this in the administrative records from the period. Died in battle.

| 56 – January/February 55 BC

(~6 months)

!20

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|Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator♀ Qleopadrat Netjeret Meret ites

|–

|De facto last pharaoh. Daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes, she succeeded him aged 18 and ruled as senior pharaoh with her brothers and eldest son. In 48 BC she fought and defeated her sister Arsinoe IV with the support of Roman dictator Julius Caesar, who fathered her first-born son and heir (Caesarion). After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, she allied with and married Mark Antony during the wars of the Second Triumvirate. Their actions led Octavian, Caesar's heir, to declare war in 32 BC; both were defeated and they are believed to have commited suicide in August 30 BC.

| March 51– 12 August 30 BC (21 years, ~5 months)

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!21

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|Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Ptolemis

|–

|Brother-husband of Cleopatra; joined Arsinoe IV in her war against Cleopatra and Caesar. Died in a failed attempt to ambush Caesar, aged 14–15.

| March 51–13 January 47 BC (3 years and some months)

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|–

|Arsinoe IV♀ Arsinat

|–

|Sister of Cleopatra; rebelled with the help of Ganymedes and then took Alexandria for a few months. Was betrayed, sent to Rome, and later executed by Mark Antony.

| September 48– 13 January 47 BC (4 months)

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!22

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|Ptolemy XIV Philopator Ptolemis

|–

|Brother-husband and nominal co-ruler with Cleopatra. Died at the age of 15–16, allegedly poisoned by his sister-wife.

|January 47– August 44 BC (3 years, ~7 months)

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!23

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|Ptolemy XV Caesar "Caesarion" Ptolemis Kyseres

|Iwapanetjernetynehem Setepenptah Irmaatre Sekhemankhenamun

|Son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, crowned co-ruler at the age of 3, better known as Caesarion ("little Cesar"). Nominally the last pharaoh; became sole ruler after Cleopatra's death, but was executed by Octavian after the fall of Alexandria.

|2 September 44–August 30 BC (13 years, 11 months)

Native rebels

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|Horwennefer

|Rebel pharaoh in the South (Upper Egypt) against Ptolemy IV Philopator, with capital at Thebes.

|November 205– September 199 BC (5 years, ~10 months)

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|Ankhwennefer

|Successor (or possibly an alternate regnal name) of Horwennefer in Thebes, Upper Egypt. Took advantage of the invasion of Antiochus III the Great in Egypt's Eastern provinces. Captured and later executed by Ptolemy V Epiphanes.

| September 199–27 August 186 BC (12 years, ~11 months)

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|Harsiesi Sausir

|Rebel pharaoh in the South (Upper Egypt) against Ptolemy VIII Physcon; took Thebes for a couple of months but was expelled and defeated in the following year.

| September 131– September 130 BC (1 year)

Roman period

thumb|Egyptian relief depicting the Roman emperor [[Trajan (right, 98–117 AD) in full pharaonic style.]]

Egypt became a client kingdom of Rome in the reign of Ptolemy X Alexander I ( 107–88 BC) but it was not until the death of Cleopatra (and defeat of Mark Antony) in 30 BC, that Egypt became a Roman province. The Roman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh by the Egyptians, but the title was not acknowledged outside the province. The last Roman emperor known from a pharaonic titulary is Maximinus Daza ( 310–313 AD). Royal cartouches are attested as late as 340 AD, but the pagan Egyptians chose to posthumously use cartouches of Diocletian ( 284–305 AD) rather than acknowledging the later Christian emperors. This was around the same time that the knowledge and understanding of hieroglyphs began to be forgotten; the last known inscription of its kind, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, dates to the year 394.

Roman rule in Egypt continued almost uninterrupted until the 7th century, when the province fell to the Arab conquest, whereafter Egypt was ruled by the successive caliphates.

List of pharaohs

Sources and chronology

Ancient Egyptian king lists

Manetho

Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Achaemenid)

Native rebels

Hellenistic period (332–30 BC)

Thirty-second Dynasty (Argead)

Thirty-third Dynasty (Ptolemaic)

Native rebels

Roman period

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography