List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty

The Yuan dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China, proclaimed on 18 December 1271 by Kublai Khan, which succeeded the Song dynasty and preceded the Ming dynasty. It also functioned as a continuation of the Mongol Empire, which was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206, but which subsequently split into four autonomous states. The emperors of the Yuan dynasty thus comprise both Kublai's successors as rulers of China and his predecessors up to his grandfather Genghis, who was retrospectively presented as the founder of the dynasty.

The rulers of the Yuan dynasty were nominally superior to those of the other three post-Mongol states, but each was de facto independent of the others and occupied with their own territories. The Yuan dynasty adopted Han political traditions, including the use of posthumous names, temple names and era names. Aside from the title of emperor, Yuan rulers also concurrently held the title of khagan.

Although the reigns of Kublai and his successor Temür were generally peaceful, weaknesses in the Yuan administration became apparent and led to a gradual breakdown of political stability. By the mid-14th century, the Yuan state became impossible to govern, and in 1368 the last emperor, Toghon Temür, was forced to flee China proper. His descendants continued to rule a rump state in Inner Mongolia, known as the Northern Yuan, until 1634.

Background

Through years of campaigning, Genghis Khan ( – 1227) unified the tribes of the Mongolian steppe and was crowned khan of the Mongol Empire, or , in 1206. The campaigns of the following decades saw Mongol armies invade and conquer China, Central Asia, Persia and much of the Middle East, and Russia. However, different branches of Genghis Khan's line became dominant in differing areas. As a result, by 1265, the once-united empire had begun to split into four independent states: the Golden Horde in modern-day Russia, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in the Near East, and a regime in China which was ruled by Genghis's grandson Kublai Khan and which was nominally superior to the rest.

To appease his Han Chinese-majority population, Kublai declared the foundation of a new imperial dynasty titled . Essentially a way to convey the in Chinese conventions, the Yuan was officially proclaimed on 18 December 1271. As the dynasty was regarded as a continuation of the Mongol Empire, contemporary writers retroactively described Genghis Khan as the dynastic founder; the post-1271 emperors styled themselves as Mongol khans. They continued the tradition, dating from the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), of the ruling head of state being known as huangdi, or emperor. In Chinese historical texts, emperors of the Yuan dynasty, along with the Tang and Song dynasties, are referred to by their temple names; they also had posthumous names and normally multiple era names.

Kublai presided over the final conquest of the Song dynasty, which had preceded the Yuan. Although his reign was generally long and prosperous, weaknesses in the Yuan's economy, society, and administration became apparent after the death of his successor Temür in 1307, culminating in two decades of near-anarchy between 1320 and 1340. Although the emperor Toghon Temür then managed to set up a stable government, an economic crisis led to a breakdown of the social order, and the powerful warlord Zhu Yuanzhang, having forced Toghon Temür to flee, established the Ming dynasty in 1368. Members of the Yuan dynasty continued to rule a rump state in the Mongol heartland, commonly known as the Northern Yuan, until 1634.

List of rulers

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%;"

|+ Yuan dynasty (大元; 1271–1368)

! scope="col" width="10%" | Portrait

! scope="col" width="15%" | Khan name

! scope="col" width="15%" | Personal name

! scope="col" width="25%" | Reign

! scope="col" width="12%" | Succession

! scope="col" width="23%" | Life details

!scope="row" |110px|alt=Genghis Khan

|Genghis Khan

----

|Temüjin

|1206 – 25 August 1227 ( years)

|Son of Yesugei and Hö'elün

| – 25 August 1227 (aged around 65)

----Unified the Mongol tribes, founded the Mongol Empire in 1206, initiated the Mongol conquests. Died in uncertain circumstances.

|-style="background-color: #EAECF0"

!scope="row" |110px|alt=Tolui

|None, known by his personal name

----

|Tolui

|1227 – 1229 ( years) (regency)

|Fourth son of Genghis

| – September/October 1231 (aged around 40)

----Commanded armies in Central Asia and in China, and was a candidate to succeed his father as khan. Died in controversial circumstances.

!scope="row" |110px|alt=Ögedei Khan

|None, known by his personal name

----

|Ögedei Khan

|13 September 1229 – 11 December 1241 ()

|Third son of Genghis

|1186 – 11 December 1241 (aged )

----Presided over the conquests of the Jin dynasty and Kievan Rus' and the invasion of Europe, refined the imperial administration, and built Karakorum as a capital city. Died from excessive drinking.

|-style="background-color: #EAECF0"

!scope="row" |Töregene Khatun

|None, known by her personal name

----

|Töregene Khatun

|1242 – 1246 ( years) (regency)

|Wife of Ögedei

|Late 1180s – late 1246

----Her five-year regency on behalf of her son Güyük was noted for its political intrigues and her excessive taxation demands, but after it ended she quickly lost influence and died.

!scope="row" |110px|alt=Güyük Khan

|None, known by his personal name

----

|Güyük Khan

|24 August 1246 – April 1248 ()

|Son of Ögedei and Töregene

|1206 – April 1248 (aged )

----Reversed his mother's economic policies and removed her associates from power; quarrelled with his cousin Batu and may have intended to campaign against him. Died of ill health.

|-style="background-color: #EAECF0"

!scope="row" |Oghul Qaimish

|None, known by her personal name

|Oghul Qaimish

|1248 – 1251 ( years) (regency)

|Wife of Güyük

|Early 1200s – summer 1252 (aged around 50)

----An ineffective regent, she was outflanked by her political enemies who proclaimed Tolui's son Möngke as khan. After a coup attempt led by her sons failed, she was judged complicit and guilty of witchcraft, and executed.

!scope="row" |110px|alt=Möngke Khan

|None, known by his personal name

----

|Möngke Khan

|1 July 1251 – 11 August 1259 ()

|First son of Tolui

|10 January 1209 – 11 August 1259 (aged )

----Purged those who had opposed his accession in the Toluid Revolution; sent his brother Hulegu to campaign in the Middle East, and himself led the invasion of the Song dynasty, during which he died of fever.

| colspan="6" style="background-color: #8F5F00" |

!scope="row" | 110px|alt=Kublai Khan

| Setsen Khan <hr/>better known as Kublai Khan

----

| Borjigin Kublai

| 5 May 1260 – 18 February 1294 ()

| Second son of Tolui

| 23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294 (aged )

----Established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, completed the conquest of the Song dynasty, won the Toluid Civil War, and moved the capital to Khanbaliq. Died of natural causes.

!scope="row" | 110px|alt=Öljeytü Khan

| Öljeytü Khan

----

| Borjigin Temür

| 10 May 1294 – 10 February 1307 ()

| Grandson of Kublai

| 15 October 1265 – 10 February 1307 (aged )

----His reign was prosperous yet conservative, implementing policies intended to ensure stability, but he failed to resolve increasing ineffiency in the Yuan administration. Died of natural causes.

!scope="row" | 110px|alt=Külüg Khan

| Külüg Khan

----

| Borjigin Haishan

| 21 June 1307 – 27 January 1311 ()

| Great-grandson of Kublai

| 4 August 1281 – 27 January 1311 (aged )

----Disregarded established systems, rapidly expanded the bureaucracy, and caused immense fiscal difficulties. Died of natural causes.

!scope="row" | 110px|alt=Buyantu Khan

| Buyantu Khan

----

| Borjigin Ayurbarwada

| 7 April 1311 – 1 March 1320 ()

| Brother of Külüg

| 9 April 1285 – 1 March 1320 (aged )

----Reversed most of his brother's policies, reintroduced the Confucian examination system, and codifed laws, but failed to restore fiscal order and was undermined by factional struggles. Died of natural causes.

!scope="row" | Gegeen Khan

| Gegeen Khan

----

| Borjigin Shidibala

| 19 April 1320 – 4 September 1323 ()

| Son of Ayurbarwada

| 22 February 1302 – 4 September 1323 (aged )

----Attempted to reduce the power of the minister and instituted monetary reforms after the latter's death, but was killed in a coup by Temuder's supporters.

!scope="row" | Borjigin Yesün Temür

| None, known either by his personal or era name

| Borjigin Yesün Temür

| 4 October 1323 – 15 August 1328 ()

| Great-Grandson of Kublai

| 28 November 1293 – 15 August 1328 (aged )

----Acceded through assassination but achieved stability by purging those who had brought him to power; restored religious impartiality in the administration. Died of natural causes.

!scope="row" |Borjigin Ragibagh

| None, known either by his personal or era name

| Borjigin Ragibagh

| October 1328 – 14 November 1328 ()

| Son of Yesün

| 1320 – 14 November 1328 (aged )

----Child emperor; probably murdered amid the War of the Two Capitals.

!scope="row" | 110px|alt=Jayaatu Khan

| Jayaatu Khan

----

| Borjigin Tugh Temür

| 16 October 1328 – 26 February 1329 ()

| Son of Külüg

| 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 (aged )

----Abdicated in favor of his brother Khutughtu Khan.

!scope="row" | 110px|alt=Khutughtu Khan

Khutughtu Khan

| Khutughtu Khan

----

| Borjigin Kusala

| 27 February 1329 – 30 August 1329 ()

| Son of Külüg

| 22 December 1300 – 30 August 1329 (aged )

----Briefly ruled before being killed by El Temür.

!scope="row" | 110px|alt=Jayaatu Khan

| Jayaatu Khan (second reign)

| Borjigin Tugh Temür

| 8 September 1329 – 2 September 1332 ()

| Son of Külüg

| 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 (aged )

----A patron of the arts and scholarship, his reign was dominated by the ministers El Temür and Bayan of the Merkid. Died of natural causes.

!scope="row" | 110px|alt=Borjigin Rinchinbal

| None, known by his personal name

----

| Borjigin Rinchinbal

| 23 October 1332 – 14 December 1332 ()

| Son of Khutughtu

| 1 May 1326 – 14 December 1332 (aged )

----Child emperor; died of sudden illness.

!scope="row" | Borjigin Toghon Temür

| Ukhaghatu Khan

----

| Borjigin Toghon Temür

| 19 July 1333 – 10 September 1368 ()

| Son of Khutughtu

| 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370 (aged )

----Restored stable government, but an economic crisis led to a breakdown of the social order; was forced to flee to Karakorum in 1368 by the warlord Zhu Yuanzhang, and founded the Northern Yuan dynasty in Inner Mongolia. Died of natural causes.

Timeline

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from: 1271 till: 1368 color:YU text:Yuan dynasty

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from: 1227 till: 1229 color:ME text:"Tolui (regent; 1227–1229)"

from: 1229 till: 1241 color:ME text:"Ögedei Khan (1229–1241)"

from: 1241 till: 1246 color:ME text:"Töregene Khatun (regent; 1241–1246)"

from: 1246 till: 1248 color:ME text:"Güyük Khan (1246–1248)"

from: 1248 till: 1251 color:ME text:"Oghul Qaimish (regent; 1248–1251)"

from: 1251 till: 1259 color:ME text:"Möngke Khan (1251–1259)"

from: 1260 till: 1294 color:YU text:"Kublai Khan (1260–1294)"

from: 1294 till: 1307 color:YU text:"Temür Khan (1294–1307)"

from: 1307 till: 1311 color:YU text:"Külüg Khan (1307–1311)"

from: 1311 till: 1320 color:YU text:"Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan (1311–1320)"

from: 1320 till: 1323 color:YU text:"Gegeen Khan (1320–1323)"

from: 1323 till: 1328 color:YU text:"Yesün Temür (1323–1328)"

from: 1328 till: 1328 color:YU text:"Ragibagh Khan (1328)"

from: 1328 till: 1332 color:YU text:"Jayaatu Khan Tugh Temür (1328–1332)"

from: 1329 till: 1329 color:YU text:"Khutughtu Khan Kusala (1329)"

from: 1332 till: 1332 color:YU text:"Rinchinbal Khan (1332)"

from: 1333 till: 1368 color:YU text:"Toghon Temür (1333–1368)"

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List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty

Background

List of rulers

Timeline

See also

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

External links