thumb|upright=0.8|[[Emperor Guangwu of Han (), as depicted by the Tang artist Yan Liben (600–673)]]
The emperors of the Han dynasty were the supreme heads of government during the second imperial dynasty of China; the Han dynasty (202 BC220 AD) followed the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and preceded the Three Kingdoms (220–265 AD). The era is conventionally periodised into the Western Han (202 BC9 AD) and Eastern Han (25–220 AD).
The Han dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gao (). The longest reigning emperor of the dynasty was Emperor Wu (), who reigned for 54 years. The dynasty was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang, but he was killed during a rebellion on 6 October 23 AD. The Han dynasty was reestablished by Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu () or Guangwu Di, who claimed the throne on 5 August 25 AD. The last Han emperor, Emperor Xian (), was a puppet monarch of Chancellor Cao Cao (155–220 AD), who dominated the court and was made King of Wei. On 11 December 220, Cao's son Pi usurped the throne as Emperor Wen of Wei () and ended the Han dynasty.
The emperor was the supreme head of government. He appointed all of the highest-ranking officials in central, provincial, commandery, and county administrations. He also functioned as a lawgiver, the highest court judge, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and high priest of the state-sponsored religious cults.
Naming conventions
Emperor
thumb|upright=1.2|[[Western Han pottery miniatures of infantry (foreground) and cavalry (background) from a royal tomb]]
thumb|upright=0.8|An Eastern Han [[Gilding|gilded bronze handle with traces of red pigment, in the shape of a dragon's head; for Han emperors, the dragon could represent either good or bad omens depending on circumstance.]]
The rulers of the previous Shang () and Zhou (256 BC) dynasties were referred to as 'king' ( ). By the time of the Zhou dynasty, they were also referred to as the Son of Heaven. In 221 BC, King Ying Zheng of Qin completed the conquest of all the Warring States of ancient China. To elevate himself above the Shang and Zhou kings, he accepted the new title of Emperor ( ) and is known to posterity as Qin Shi Huang, the 'First Emperor' of Qin. The new title of emperor was created by combining the titles for the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors from Chinese mythology. This title was used by each successive ruler of China until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911.
Posthumous, temple, and era names
From the Shang until the Sui dynasty (581–618) dynasty, Chinese rulers (both kings and emperors) were referred to by their posthumous names in records and historical texts. Temple names, first used during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (), were used exclusively in later records and historical texts when referring to emperors who reigned during the Tang (618–907), Song (960–1279), and Yuan (1271–1368) dynasties. During the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) dynasties, a single era name was used for each emperor's reign and became the preferred way to refer to Ming and Qing emperors in historical texts.
Use of the era name was formally adopted during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (), yet its origins can be traced back further. The oldest method of recording years—which had existed since the Shang—set the first year of a ruler's reign as year one. When an emperor died, the first year of a new reign period would begin. This system was changed by the 4th century BC when the first year of a new reign period did not begin until the first day of the lunar New Year following a ruler's death. When Duke Huiwen of Qin assumed the title of king in 324 BC, he changed the year count of his reign back to the first year. For his newly adopted calendar established in 163 BC, Emperor Wen of Han () also set the year count of his reign back to the beginning.
Since six was considered a lucky number, the emperors Jing and Wu changed the year count of their reigns back to the beginning every six years. Since every six-year period was successively marked as yuannian (), eryuan (), sanyuan (), and so forth, this system was considered too cumbersome by the time it reached the fifth cycle wuyuan sannian () in 114 BC. In that year, a government official suggested that the Han court retrospectively rename every "beginning" with new characters; Emperor Wu accepted this reform in 110 BC. Since Emperor Wu had just performed the religious Feng Shan sacrifice at Mount Taishan, he named the new era yuanfeng (). This event is regarded as the formal establishment of era names in Chinese history. Emperor Wu changed the era name once more when he established the 'Great Beginning' ( Taichu) calendar in 104 BC. From this point until the end of Western Han, the court established a new era name every four years of an emperor's reign. By the Eastern Han, there was no set interval for establishing new era names, which were often introduced for political reasons and celebrating auspicious events.
Regents and empress dowagers
thumb|upright=0.8|An ink rubbing of The story of [[Jin Midi, a 2nd-century AD stone relief at the Wu Liang shrines in Jiaxiang, Shandong]]
At times, especially when an infant emperor was placed on the throne, a regent, often the empress dowager or one of her male relatives, would assume the duties of the emperor until he reached his majority. Sometimes the empress dowager's faction—the consort clan—was overthrown in a coup d'état. For example, Empress Lü Zhi () was the de facto ruler of the court during the reigns of the child emperors Qianshao () and Houshao (). Her faction was overthrown during the Lü Clan disturbance of 180 BC and Liu Heng was named emperor (posthumously known as Emperor Wen). Before Emperor Wu died in 87 BC, he had invested Huo Guang (), Jin Midi (), and Shangguan Jie (; ) with the power to govern as regents over his successor Emperor Zhao of Han (). Huo Guang and Shangguan Jie were both grandfathers to Empress Shangguan (), wife of Emperor Zhao, while the ethnically-Xiongnu Jin Midi was a former slave who had worked in an imperial stable. After Jin died and Shangguan was executed for treason, Huo Guang was the sole ruling regent. Following his death, the Huo family faction was overthrown by Emperor Xuan of Han (), in revenge for Huo Guang poisoning his wife Empress Xu Pingjun () so that he could marry Huo's daughter Empress Huo Chengjun ().
List of emperors
Below is a complete list of emperors of the Han dynasty, including their personal, posthumous, and era names. Excluded from the list are de facto rulers such as regents and empress dowagers.
{| class="wikitable plainrowreaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ Western Han (202 BC9 AD)
! scope="col" style="width:5em" | Sovereign
! colspan="2" scope="col" | Personal name
! scope="col" style="width:7.5em" | Reigned from
! scope="col" style="width:7.5em" | Reigned until
! colspan="2" | Posthumous name
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Temple name
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Era name
! scope="col" style="width:7.5em" | Years
|-
! scope="row" | Emperor Gaozu
| Liu Bang
| style="min-width:1ic" |
| 28 February 202 BC
| 1 June 195 BC
| Emperor Gao
| style="min-width:1ic" |
| Taizu
| style="min-width:1ic" |
| colspan="3" rowspan="4"
|-
! scope="row" | Emperor Hui
| Liu Ying
|
| 23 June 195 BC
| 26 September 188 BC
| Emperor Xiaohui
|
| colspan="2"
|-
! scope="row" | Emperor Qianshao
| Liu Gong
|
| 19 October 188 BC
| 15 June 184 BC
| colspan="2"
| colspan="2"
|-
! scope="row" | Emperor Houshao
| Liu Hong
|
| 15 June 184 BC
| 14 November 180 BC
| rowspan="2" | Emperor Xiaowen
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |Taizong
| rowspan="2" |
| Qianyuan
|
| 179–164 BC
|-
| Houyuan
|
| 163–156 BC
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" | Emperor Jing
| rowspan="3" | Liu Qi
| rowspan="3" |
| rowspan="3" | 14 July<br />157 BC
| rowspan="3" | 9 March 141 BC
| rowspan="11" | Emperor Xiaowu
| rowspan="11" |
| rowspan="11" | Shizong
| rowspan="11" |
| Jianyuan
|
| 141–135 BC
|-
| Yuanguang
|
| 134–129 BC
|-
| Yuanshuo
|
| 128–123 BC
|-
| Yuanshou
|
| 122–117 BC
|-
| Yuanding
|
| 116–111 BC
|-
| Yuanfeng
|
| 110–105 BC
|-
| Taichu
|
| 104–101 BC
|-
| Tianhan
|
| 100–97 BC
|-
| Taishi
|
| 96–93 BC
|-
| Zhenghe
|
| 92–89 BC
|-
| Houyuan
|
| 88–87 BC
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" | Emperor Zhao
| rowspan="3" | Liu Fuling
| rowspan="3" |
| rowspan="3" | 30 March 87 BC
| rowspan="3" | 5 June 74 BC
| rowspan="3" | Emperor Xiaozhao
| rowspan="3" |
| colspan="2" rowspan="3"
| Shiyuan
|
| 86–80 BC
|-
| Yuanfeng
|
| 80–75 BC
|-
| Yuanping
|
| 74 BC
|-
! scope="row" | Marquis of Haihun
| Liu He
|
| 18 July<br />74 BC
| 14 August 74 BC
| rowspan="4" | Emperor Xiaoyuan
| rowspan="4" |
| rowspan="4" | Gaozong
| rowspan="4" |
| Chuyuan
|
| 48–44 BC
|-
| Yongguang
|
| 43–39 BC
|-
| Jianzhao
|
| 38–34 BC
|-
| Jingning
|
| 33 BC
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="7" | Emperor Cheng
| rowspan="7" | Liu Ao
| rowspan="7" |
| rowspan="7" | 4 August 33 BC
| rowspan="7" | 17 April<br />7 BC
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" | Ruzi Ying
| rowspan="2" | Liu Ying
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | 17 April<br />6 AD
| rowspan="2" | 10 January 9 AD
| King Wushun of Huaiyang
| style="min-width:1ic" |
| Yanzong
| style="min-width:1ic" |
| Gengshi
| style="min-width:1ic" |
| 23–25 AD
|}
{| class="wikitable plainrowreaders" style="width:100%; text-align:center"
|+ Eastern Han (25–220 AD)
! scope="col" style="width:5.5em" | Sovereign
! colspan="2" scope="col" | Personal name
! scope="col" style="width:7.5em" | Reigned from
! scope="col" style="width:7.5em" | Reigned until
! colspan="2" | Posthumous name
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Temple name
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Era name
! scope="col" style="width:7.5em" | Years
| rowspan="2" | Emperor Guangwu
| style="min-width:1ic" rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | Shizu
| style="min-width:1ic" rowspan="2" |
| Jianwu
| style="min-width:1ic" |
| 25–56 AD
|-
| Jianwu-zhongyuan
|
| 56–57 AD
|-
! scope="row" | Emperor Ming
| Liu Zhuang
|
| 29 March 57 AD
| 5 September 75 AD
| Emperor Xiaoming
|
| Xianzong
|
| Yongping
|
| 57–75 AD
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" | Emperor Zhang
| rowspan="3" | Liu Da
| rowspan="3" |
| rowspan="3" | 5 September 75 AD
| rowspan="3" | 9 April<br />88 AD
| rowspan="3" | Emperor Xiaozhang
| rowspan="3" |
| rowspan="3" | Suzong
| rowspan="3" |
| Jianchu
|
| 76–84 AD
|-
| Yuanhe
|
| 84–87 AD
|-
| Zhanghe
|
| 87–88 AD
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" | Emperor He
| rowspan="2" | Liu Zhao
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | 9 April 88 AD
| rowspan="2" | 13 February 106 AD
| rowspan="2" | Emperor Xiaohe
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | Muzong
| rowspan="2" |
| Yongyuan
|
| 89–105 AD
|-
| Yuanxing
|
| 105 AD
|-
! scope="row" | Emperor Shang
| Liu Long
|
| 13 February 106 AD
| 21 September 106 AD
| Emperor Xiaoshang
|
| colspan="2"
| Yanping
|
| 106 AD
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="5" | Emperor An
| rowspan="5" | Liu Hu
| rowspan="5" |
| rowspan="5" | 23 September 106 AD
| rowspan="5" | 30 April 125 AD
| rowspan="5" | Emperor Xiao'an
| rowspan="5" |
| rowspan="5" | Gongzong
| rowspan="5" |
| Yongchu
|
| 107–113 AD
|-
| Yuanchu
|
| 114–120 AD
|-
| Yongning
|
| 120–121 AD
|-
| Jianguang
|
| 121–122 AD
|-
| Yanguang
|
| 122–125 AD
|-
! scope="row" | Marquess of Beixiang
| Liu Yi
|
| 18 May 125 AD
| 10 December 125 AD
| colspan="2"
| colspan="2"
| Yanguang
|
| 125 AD
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="5" | Emperor Shun
| rowspan="5" | Liu Bao
| rowspan="5" |
| rowspan="5" | 16 December 125 AD
| rowspan="5" | 20 September 144 AD
| rowspan="5" | Emperor Xiaoshun
| rowspan="5" |
| rowspan="5" | Jingzong
| rowspan="5" |
| Yongjian
|
| 126–132 AD
|-
| Yangjia
|
| 132–135 AD
|-
| Yonghe
|
| 136–141 AD
|-
| Han'an
|
| 142–144 AD
|-
| Jiankang
|
| 144 AD
|-
! scope="row" | Emperor Chong
| Liu Bing
|
| 20 September 144 AD
| 15 February 145 AD
| Emperor Xiaochong
|
| colspan="2"
| Yongxi
|
| 145 AD
|-
! scope="row" | Emperor Zhi
| Liu Zuan
|
| 6 March 145 AD
| 26 July 146 AD
| rowspan="7" | Emperor Xiaohuan
| rowspan="7" |
| rowspan="7" | Weizong
| rowspan="7" |
| Jianhe
|
| 147–149 AD
|-
| Heping
|
| 150 AD
|-
| Yuanjia
|
| 151–153 AD
|-
| Yongxing
|
| 153–154 AD
|-
| Yongshou
|
| 155–158 AD
|-
| Yanxi
|
| 158–167 AD
|-
| Yongkang
|
| 167 AD
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="4" | Emperor Ling
| rowspan="4" | Liu Hong
| rowspan="4" |
| rowspan="4" | 17 February 168 AD
| rowspan="4" | 13 May 189 AD
| rowspan="4" | Emperor Xiaoling
| rowspan="4" |
| colspan="2" rowspan="4"
| Jianning
|
| 168–172 AD
|-
| Xiping
|
| 172–178 AD
|-
| Guanghe
|
| 178–184 AD
|-
| Zhongping
|
| 184–189 AD
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" | Emperor Shao
| rowspan="2" | Liu Bian
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" | 15 May 189 AD
| rowspan="2" | 28 September 189 AD 220 AD
| rowspan="5" | Emperor Xiaoxian
| rowspan="5" |
| colspan="2" rowspan="5"
| Yonghan
|
| 189 AD
|-
| Chuping
|
| 190–193 AD
|-
| Xingping
|
| 194–195 AD
|-
| Jian'an
|
| 196–220 AD
|-
| Yankang
|
| 220 AD
|}
Timeline
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ImageSize = width:1600 height:auto barincrement:15
PlotArea = top:10 bottom:30 right:100 left:20
AlignBars = early
DateFormat = yyyy
Period = from:-210 till:220
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:-210
Colors =
id:canvas value:rgb(0.97,0.97,0.97)
id:WH value:rgb(1,0.6,0.2)
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Backgroundcolors = canvas:canvas
BarData =
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PlotData=
width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till
barset:Rulers
from: -202 till: -195 color:WH text:"Gao (202–195 BCE)"
from: -195 till: -188 color:WH text:"Hui (195–188 BCE)"
from: -188 till: -184 color:WH text:"Liu Gong (188–184 BCE)"
from: -184 till: -180 color:WH text:"Liu Hong (184–180 BCE)"
from: -180 till: -157 color:WH text:"Wen (180–157 BCE)"
from: -157 till: -141 color:WH text:"Jing (157–141 BCE)"
from: -141 till: -87 color:WH text:"Wu (141–87 BCE)"
from: -87 till: -74 color:WH text:"Zhao (87–74 BCE)"
from: -74 till: -74 color:WH text:"Liu He (74 BCE)"
from: -74 till: -49 color:WH text:"Xuan (74–49 BCE)"
from: -49 till: -33 color:WH text:"Yuan (49–33 BCE)"
from: -33 till: -7 color:WH text:"Cheng (33–7 BCE)"
from: -7 till: -1 color:WH text:"Ai (7–1 BCE)"
from: -1 till: 6 color:WH text:"Ping (1 BCE–6 CE)"
from: 6 till: 9 color:WH text:"Liu Ying (6–9 CE)"
from: 23 till: 25 color:IN text:"Gengshi (23–25 CE)"
from: 25 till: 27 color:IN text:"Liu Penzi (25–27 CE)"
from: 25 till: 57 color:EH text:"Guangwu (25–57 CE)"
from: 57 till: 75 color:EH text:"Ming (57–75 CE)"
from: 75 till: 88 color:EH text:"Zhang (75–88 CE)"
from: 88 till: 106 color:EH text:"He (88–106 CE)"
from: 106 till: 106 color:EH text:"Shang (106 CE)"
from: 106 till: 125 color:EH text:"An (106–125 CE)"
from: 125 till: 125 color:EH text:"Liu Yi (125 CE)"
from: 125 till: 144 color:EH text:"Shun (125–144 CE)"
from: 144 till: 145 color:EH text:"Chong (144–145 CE)"
from: 145 till: 146 color:EH text:"Zhi (145–146 CE)"
from: 146 till: 168 color:EH text:"Huan (146–168 CE)"
from: 168 till: 189 color:EH text:"Ling (168–189 CE)"
from: 189 till: 189 color:EH text:"Liu Bian (189 CE)"
from: 189 till: 220 color:EH text:"Xian (189–220 CE)"
barset:skip
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Legend
- <span style="background:#FF9933;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA"></span> denotes Western Han monarchs
- <span style="background:#33CCCC;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA"></span> denotes Han monarchs following the collapse of the Xin dynasty but prior to the Eastern Han
- <span style="background:#FF3399;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA"></span> denotes Eastern Han monarchs
See also
- Dynasties in Chinese history
- List of Chinese monarchs
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
- .