List of European medieval musical instruments

This is a list of medieval musical instruments used in European music during the Medieval period. It covers the period from before 5th into the 15th A.D. There may be some overlap with Renaissance musical instruments; Renaissance music begins in the 15th century. The list mainly covers Western Europe. It may branch into Eastern Europe and non-European parts of the Byzantine Empire (Anatolia, northern Africa).

Percussion

{| class="wikitable"

! Names and variations

! width=|Description

! Ethnic connections, regions

! colspan=2|Pictures

|Adufe

Pandeiro

|A frame drum brought to Iberia by Muslims and played mainly by women. Used in the charamba in Portugal, a circle dance for couples.

|Iberia<br>Portugal<br>Spain

|thumb|200px|center|1240s A.D., France. An adulf (square held over the group's head)

thumb|200px|center|Circa 1320, Barcelona. Woman playing an adufe, from an illustration in the [[Golden Haggadah.]]

|Bell

:Beehive bell

:Sugarloaf bell As Christianity became widespread, trumpets, semantrons and bells were used in religious services, including calling worshippers to service. Paulinus of Nola (about 400 A.D.) and Pope Sabinianus (about 604 A.D.) are credited for early use of bells in church.

Monks in Byzantine cloisters in Damascus cast some of Christianity's earliest bells (about handbell sized).

In the 5th century Irish Christians made forged bells of sheet metal, and one was carried by Saint Patrick for use as a church bell. The bells were wrung in the Celtic Christian Church, whose missionary work brought Christianity to parts of Europe conquered by Germanic tribes in the fall of the Roman Empire. The bells in Ireland are culturally linked to those in Scotland, Wales, England, Brittany, France, and Switzerland. Sugarloaf bells were made starting in the 12th century. Transitional rib and Gothic rib bells were made from the 12th century and into the 17th century.]]thumb|200px|center|Circa 9th century A.D., [[Carolingian Empire. Saufang bell, which hung for centuries in St. Cecilia's Church, Cologne. Iron sheets, forged and riveted with copper nails and bronze coated.]]

thumb |200px|center |Early 13th century A.D.,Germany. Evangelist's Bell, [[Niederwetz, a sugarloaf bell.]]

thumb|200px|center|Poland, church of St Mary Magdalen in Breslau. Sinner's bell, cast 1386, destroyed in 1945.

|Handbells

Chimes

Chime bells

Bell chime

cymbalum

|In the Roman Empire preceding medieval Europe, bells were known. An example is the tintinnabulum, a wind chime made of small bells.

Racks of hammer struck bells are called chimes. Chimes from cymbalum (Latin).

Cymbala, hung in towers became carillons, the bells eventually becoming very large in comparison to the wrack-suspended bells

|Latin, western tradition from church

:tintinabuli, little bell

:Cymbala, plural, bell chime (multiple bells)

|thumb|200px|center|Bell used in monastery to signal times of day for activities; inscribed in Latin TINNIO PRANSVRIS CENATVRIS BIBITVRIS (“I ring for breakfast, dinner, and drinks”). This would have been hung on a rod or bar and played with a mallet.thumb|200px|center|Bell tablethumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Miniature from the Cantigas de Santa Maria showing bells hung from a rack resembling church arches (like a [[carillon?), struck by hammers, but also having clappers. The letter was reproduced in Christian manuscripts. Starting about 850, scribes began to illustrate the letter in manuscripts, from descriptions of the musical instruments in the letter. Some are allegorical and wouldn't work, such as a horn with three mouthpieces for each of the Holy Trinity to blow through; however in an allegory the Trinity would be expressed by speaking through the four outlets, symbolizing the Four Evangelists.

The bumbulum was played by shaking it. It had hanging bells or jingles, suspended from a centerpiece, itself suspended from overhead. It was described as a carpenter's square (signifiying the Holy Cross) with a "four cornered object" hanging from it (signifying Christ on the Cross), with 12 pipes hanging from the object's sides (to jingle and to signify the 12 Apostles).

|thumb|200px|center|Circa 850-875 A.D., Benedictine Abbey of Saint Emmeran, Germany. Illustrations of St. Jerome's instruments. Top, the bumbulum; below it the tubae blown through by the Trinity; the two instruments below the tubae are [[Psaltery|psalteriums; below them are a timpanum and chorus (trumpet that splits into two and rejoins at the exit).]]

|thumb|200px|center|1511 A.D. Germany. Reproduction of line of images in manuscript that go back into the 850s A.D. At left a bumbulum; at right an organum ([[pipe organ).]]

|Clappers

crotalum

cliquettes

castagnettes

|Crotala, from the Carolingian Empire were metal chimes attached to sticks. Cliquettes (also called crotala) were blocks of wood held in the palms. The palm-held blocks could make clicking and rattle noises like castanets. Other similar instruments worldwide include the Thai/Cambodian krap sepha, Indian/Nepali khartal, Uzbek/Tajik qairaq, or North African krakebs. Castagnettes were wooden instrument, made up of sticks that were clapped or beaten together.

thumb|200px|center|Circa 850 A.D. Musicians in the [[Utrecht Psalter holding a lyre and crotalus (clappers).]]

|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1250 A.D. Crusader Bible (MS M.638, fol. 39r) cropped for crotala (cliquettes in modern French). Also a bell and a [[three-hole pipe (with fipple mouthpiece and duct).]]

|Cymbals

Cymbala

Carillon

|Greek word kymbolon transmitted to medieval Europe through Latin (cymbalum -singular, cymbala -plural). Examples in Roman and Byzantine mosaics show girls dancing with them, in different versions that include finger or palm cymbals, cymbals on sticks and cup-shaped cymbals.

The cymbals on sticks (crotala) found their way into art of the Carolingian Empire. In medieval manuscripts, cymbala became bell chimes, bells suspended in series and struck with hammers. Cup shaped cymbals also made their way into medieval manuscripts. Unlike the dancing artwork from Roman and Byzantine mosaics, the Carolingian and later artwork was stripped of sexuality and put into a Christian or Jewish context.

|thumb|200px|center|5th century A.D., Roman villa at Agora, Argos, Greece. A dancer in the [[thiasus plays cymbala and dances with Dionysus.]]thumb|200px|center|4th century A.D., Byzantine Empire. Woman playing cymbala (or kymbala) finger or palm cymbals, from the Mosaic of the Female Musicians, Mariaminthumb|200px|center|Late 12th-early 13th century A.D. Musician accompanying [[David plays the cymbala with hammers, and another also plays cymbala (cup-shaped cymbals).]]

thumb|200px|center

|Drum

|The only drums in Europe reaching into ancient times were "Semitic frame drums", such as the Greek and Roman tympanum. Larger drums were introduced from "West Asia" in the medieval period. From PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College Cambridge, manuscript B.18, folio 1r]]

|*Frame drum

|See pandeiro, tabor

"A tympanum is a piece of skin or leather stretched over a piece of wood on one side." —Isidore of Seville, about 600 A.D.

The frame drum in use in Europe before the bigger drums arrived from West Asia can be called tambourines today. Tympanum was used as a name, as well as tabor. These were wooden rings with leather covering one side. At first there were no jingles, as became common. A variant was the pandeiro, introduced with Muslim invasions and pictured in manuscripts in Spain and Sicily. Some tabors could be frame drums, but other grew wider than the hand-held ring which we call tambourine today.

Tof was the Hebrew instrument which Miriam played, "most commonly translated" into English as timbrel Near eastern origin, used by Gauls, Greeks, Romans (tympanum), Egyptians, Assyrians. Jingles were probably originally separate from this instrument.

|Tympanum, Latin

Tympanon, Greek

Tof

Timbrel]]

|Jew's harp

|thumb|200px|center|Circa 11th-15th century A.D. Jaw Harp made of copper alloy, found in [[Rutland. The instrument is missing its tongue.]]

|thumb|200px|center|Angel playing a [[guimbarde or Jew's harp, crypt of Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Bayeux]]

|Nakers

|Appears in English writings from 1352 to 1440 European adaptation of kettledrum from Near East, the naqqâra.

Row or rod rattles; rattles strung on a straight or ring-shaped rod. Medieval triangles are illustrated with rattles in this manner.

|Cog rattle

Clatter

Crotalus

:matraca

Grager

Ratchet

|Has been used among Catholic Christians in religious ceremonies to replace bells. Among Catholics has been used to replace bells between the Gloria of the Mass of the Last Supper on Maundy Thursday and the Easter Vigil.

Among Jewish people a ratchet is used to make noise by the congregation during the celebration of Purim. Sephardi Jews immigrating to Spanish imperial holdings in the Americas following their 1492 expulsion from Spain brought gragers for celebrating Purim, which could pass as the matracha of Catholic usage.

|thumb|200px|center|Wooden rattle

|thumb|200px|center|Wooden grogger or grager (Purim Noisemaker)

|Semantron

(Greek: σήμαντρον)

Lignum sacrum

Naqus (Arabic: ناقوس)

Toacă (Romanian)

|Wooden percussion board, struck with a hammer like a bell. These may be hung horizontally or vertically. Smaller versions may be handheld. In monasteries, they are used to call the monks. Used in Greek Orthodox during Easter week. These are still in use in Eastern Orthodox monasteries and may be made of wood or metal.

|Greece

Macedonia

Bulgaria

Romania

Russia

Serbia

Armenia

Israel

Syria

|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1150-1200 A.D., Byzantine Empire. The priest Themel drives off the Arabs of [[Tarsus, Mersin|Tarsus, Cilicia, with his semantron. Miniature in the Greek Chronicle Madrid Illuminated Manuscript des Skylitzes. Chapter XI, fol. 132r]]thumb|200px|center|Monk with a semantron in the form of a double paddle, Sinaia Monastery, Romania.

|thumb|200px|center|12th-13th century A.D., Sicily. A man plays the semantron with a hammer. Madrid Skylitzes, Madrid, National Library, codex vitr. 26-2, folio 28v.thumb|200px|center|Musunoaiele Orthodox Monastery, Romania. Semantron with holes on each end for hanging, a thin center to handhold, and a mallet.

|Tabor

Pipe and tabor

|Early snare drum, narrow body compared to width of drumhead, 12th century and later.

The ensemble that played a three-hole pipe and "small drum" was used throughout western Europe to provide music for dances and was first seen in southern France and northern Spain in the 12th century. A player played both instruments at the same time. These were tabors, double sided with snares of rope (possibly only on one side.

ttun-ttun

buttafuoco

|Instrument played mainly in the Iberian Peninsula and Spanish influenced areas of Italy. Appears earlier in sculpture and miniatures as a simple squared box with strings. Later the box becomes more elaborate. Played with 3-hole pipe. Some images shows play using 2 sticks, as well as one stick and fingers.

|Triangle

|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1457–1461, [[Oratory of San Bernardino, Perugia. Nakers and a triangle.]]

|thumb|200px|center|Musician plays triangle in Olomouc Bible, folio 276R

String instruments

{| class="wikitable"

! Names and variations

! width=|Description

! width=|Ethnic connections, regions

! colspan=2|Pictures

|Citole

|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1310 A.D. Citole from the Robert de Lisle Psalter.

|Clavichord

|Clavichords were in existence in the "early years of the 15th century." Word clavichord found in text from 1404. Irish used cruit (indicating a lyre and later a frame harp).

|Dulcimer

Hammer dulcimer

|A box zither; see psaltery.

"Little is known of the dulcimer before the mid-15th century." Earliest known depiction is on ivory carving for book cover, 12th century A.D.

|Fiddle see also

:Gusle

:Kemenche

::Kemenche of the Black Sea

::Kemane of Cappadocia

::Shikepshine

:Lyra

::Lijerica

::Calabrian lira

::politiki lyra

::Cretan lyra

::Gadulka

::Gudok

:Pochette

:Rebec

::Arabella

::Rabel

::Rebab

:Vielle

:Vihuela de arco

|thumb|200px|center|David playing music on a fiddle. From St. Albans Psalter, page 56.

|thumb|200px|center|14th century, Flemish artwork. Fiddle in the Reliquary of Saint Ursula. Fiddles such as this have been labeled fiddle, rabel and vielle. Names don't imply different instruments, but possibly reveal variations in music traditions.thumb|200px|center|Fiddle from Theodore Psalter, folio 191R, 11th century A.D., Byzantine Empire

|Gittern

|thumb|200px|center|Instrument on left has been called guitarra latina and citole. Instrument on right has been called guitarra morisca (Moorish guitar) and vihuela peñola (quill plucked guitar).

|thumb|center|200px|Fiddle at left could be called a [[vielle. Instrument on left has been called both guitarra latina and citole.]]

|Guitarra morisca

|thumb|200px|center|Possible guitarras morisca. The Moors (if they mean Africans) had a tradition of wood-bowed lutes covered with leather. Arab/Persian Muslims had a different carved wood with leather tradition ([[Barbat (lute)|barbat and gambus). Either group was called Moors in Spain.]]

|Medieval harp (Medieval form of the modern harp)

Celtic harp

:Irish Harp

::cláirseach

:Scottish harp

::clàrsach

:Breton

::telenn

:Welsh Harp

::telyn

Not counting the ancient Greek harps, earliest depictions of harps in Europe include examples in Scotland (the Nigg Stone, late 8th century) and Ireland (early images in stone carvings appear to show oblong, c-shaped and triangular harps or lyres.). Other early works can be seen from France, such as the ivory cover to the Dagulf Psalter in France and the 9th century illustrations in the Utrecht Psalter.

Harps were strung throughout Europe with gut strings. Exceptions include Ireland (where strings were of metal) and Wales (where portable harps used horsehair strings through the 17th century A.D.).

For comparison of harps from across the ancient and medieval world, look at angular harps, arched harps, and konghou.

|Lute

|thumb|center|200px|Circa 1376, Spain. Lute player, detail from Mare de Déu de la Llet (Our Lady of Milk) by [[Lorenzo Zaragoza.]]

|Lyra

:Byzantine lyra

:Cretan lyra

|See rebec below

Byzantine version of rebec. Sachs said, "under the names fiddle, vièle, viola, became the principle bowed instrument in Europe."

|thumb|200px|center|Later versions of the Cretan lyra, from a museum in Athens.

|thumb|200px|center| Circa 900 – 1100 A.D. Lyra on a Byzantine ivory casket, Museo Nazionale, Florence

|Lyre

Anglo-Saxon lyre

:Hearpe

Germanic lyre

:Rotte

Irish lyre

:Crot, cruth

|Germanic lyre, used in northwestern Europe in the early medieval period (circa 450 A.D.) into the 13th century. There are 21 mentions of the lyre in Anglo-Saxon poetry, five of these in Beowulf.

|*Hearpe (OEng)

Viking lyre, Scandinavian lyre
harpa, hörpu (ONorse)
Anglo-Saxon lyre
cruit (OIrish), crot
crowd (MidEng)
chrotta (OHGer, Latin)
hruozza (OHGer)
lyra, lira, lire (MedLatin)
rota (OProv)
rotta (OHGer, OProv, MedLatin)
rote (OFr, MidEng)
rotte (MidHGer)
sambuca (MedLatin)

|Monochord

|The monochord was a theoretical instrument illustrated in religious miniatures. A single string zither, which could produce different notes by pressure and plucking.

|thumb|200px|center|Man with monochord and chime bells, from the PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College, B.18, folio 1r

|Nyckelharpa

|Played by bow across strings; keys on the neck raised strings up to be sounded.

|viola a chiavi, Italian

|thumb|200px|center|1408, [[Siena, Italy. Viola a chiavi (key viola).]]

|thumb|200px|center|1450-1500, Sweden. Nyckelharpa played by angel.

|Organistrum (large form of medieval hurdy-gurdy)

Symphonia

Hurdy-gurdy

|Organistrum, an early form of hurdy-gurdy, probable ancestor of later hurdy-gurdies. Played in churches and monastic schools until the 13th century A.D. After 13th century the instrument declined, and fell into disuse in the 14th.

In the 10th century A.D., Odo of Cluny wrote a work (Quomodo organistrum construatur) that helped readers make an instrument.

organistrum, circa 942 A.D-14th century.

thumb|200px|center|1473, Germany. Angel with a Leier.

|Psaltery

|thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D. Cantigas de Santa Maria. Psaltery being played with two hands, probably base at bottom to treble strings higher.

|Rabel

|Fiddle, probably variation of rebec. Survives today in Basque speaking areas; historically had leather soundboard; modern instruments may have wooden soundboard. The instrument traveled to the Spanish colonies in America, where it can be found today in Panama.

|arrabel

robel

rovel

arribata (Basque)

xirribika (Basque)

|Rebab

Rabé morisco

|In the late 8th century A.D. r-bab (rabāb) was used in Arabic for a plucked boat-shaped lute. The name would also be used for bowed spike lutes by the 900s A.D., mentioned by Al Farabi.

|Western European version of the lyra.

Europeans adapted the Near Eastern rabāb to Western music. The Byzantines called their version Lyra (harkening to Greek musical instruments), while in Spain northward the rabāb became rebab, rebec, rabel, rubebe. Eastward from the Byzantine empire, it became lirica (among Croats), gudok (Russia), gusla and gadulka (Bulgaria).

One version had two strings, tuned a fifth apart.

Often confused with harps in illustrations. Church writers in the Carolingian Empire had limited understanding of earlier instruments, such as the angular vertical harp. Descriptions from the 4th-5th centuries of this instrument caused confusion in the 10th-12th centuries by artists creating miniatures in manuscripts.

|zither harp

triangular psalterium

|thumb|200px|center|Two of the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse with a psaltery and rota, Santo Domingo de Soriathumb|200px|center|One of the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse with a rota, Santo Domingo de Soriathumb|200px|center|1150-1159 A.D., [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. Digenes Akritas and his wife Eydokia, from the romance story Digenes Akritas. Digenes' hand is gripping the instrument on its far side, showing it to be solid, a psaltery-playing technique. From silver Byzantine/Armenian bowl in the Hermitage Museum.]]

|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1100 A.D., Italy. King David playing rotte accompanied by a man playing fiddle, from the Psalter of Polirone, Mantua, Teresiana Library, ms. 340, f. 1v-2r.thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. A king and a musician play the Rota. Cantigas de Santa Maria, Codex of the Musicians.thumb|200px|center|13th century, Spain. King David playing a probable rotte, Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela. Harps were stylized at this point; this instrument does not have obvious soundbox as on a harp (either deep or wide to create a sound chamber).

|Tambouras

|thumb|200px|center|11th century A.D., Byzantium. Tambouras and fingerhole trumpet.

|Tromba marina

Trumpet marine

|thumb|200px|center

|thumb|200px|center|1448 A.D., Germany. Tromba marina.

|Vielle

Vièle

|Vihuela

Viola

|In the Iberian Peninsula, small lutes are pictured, which have been considered as possible cytharas and citoles. In Portugal, the tradition remained into the modern era, the instruments called violas. They were vihuelas in Spain. Vihuela eventually became a large guitar-like instrument of the Renaissance. Violas remained small. The name viola has been reused for a variety of instruments including viola da gamba, viola (a modern fiddle).

|Vihuela de arco

Viola de arco

Vihuela de arco pequeña (small bowed vihuela)

|The vihuela de arco may be a variant of the vielle. Spain had a variety of fiddles (which predate the violin) in the cathedral artwork and manuscript miniatures.

|thumb|200px|center|Possibly the vihuela de arco (bowed vihuela) and vihuela de penola (quill plucked vihuela) The bowed instrument could be called a [[vielle]]

|thumb|200px|center|Vihuela de arco (bowed vihuela). The downward bowed fiddles came to be called Viols, as in [[Viola de gamba (viol of the legs). Vihuela was the Spanish name, and in Spain the vihuelas became plucked more than bowed.]]

thumb|200px|center| Spain, "second third of 10th century". Vihuelas de arco or [[Viola de arco|Violas de arco played with a bow. From Commentary on the Apocalypse, Codice VITR 14.1.]]

|Zither

Wind instruments

{| class="wikitable"

! Names and variations

! Description

! Ethnic connections, regions

! Pictures

|Albogón

|See reedpipes below

Double-reed instrument or type of shawm, possibly adapted from Muslim al-buq horn.

Bellows pipe

|See article: List of bagpipes

See reedpipes below

Reedpipes attached to a leather bag to give a continuous air supply.

|baghèt, N. Italy

:piva

:zampogna (Calabria, Sicily, Malta)

duda, Hungary

gaita (Iberian Peninsula)

:gaita asturiana

:gaita de boto

:galician gaita

:gaita transmontana

:gaita cabreiresa

:odrecillo, small bagpipe (Old Spanish)

:sac de gemecs, Catalonia

gajda, Balkans

:kaba gaida (Bulgaria)

:gaida (Macedonia)

:cimpoi (Romania)

:tsampouna (Greece)

:askomandoura (Greece)

great Highland bagpipe, Scotland

:Northumbrian smallpipes (England)

:pipa cŵd (Wales)

:uilleann pipes (Ireland)

huemmelchen, Germany

musette, France

:musa, Latin, moúsa, Greek

:Binioù (Brittany)

säckpipa, Sweden

torupill, Estonia

xeremia, Mallorca

żaqq, Malta

|Bladder pipe

|See reedpipes below

Reedpipes in which the player blows into a bag made from a bladder; by puffing their cheeks (to continue air pressure while taking a breath) players could keep a continual air flow going to the reeds.

|Buisine

Anafil

Nafir

Trompe

|See horn and wooden trumpet below.

The nafir was a Muslim instrument, adapted by Europeans and renamed the anafil in Spain and the buisine in France.ú ú

The buisine (first mention about 1100 A.D.) was a long, slightly curved horn, used in battle for signaling.

Europeans developed the instrument further into the herald trumpet or clarion near the end of the medieval period.

|Initially in Spain (during the Reconquista), and France and other parts of Europe during the Crusades.

|Clarion

:Claretta

Fanfare trumpet

Herald trumpet

Bugle

|Clarion today implies high, angelic, pealing notes. That sound was developed, however, as Europeans began to learn to shape and bend sheet-metal tubes for trumpets. Muslims also had trumpets with clarion notes, as part of a mix of trumpet sounds with tenor and bass. Later cornetts took on a stylized appearance, the curved instruments somewhat resembling an animal horn. Carved wooden instruments had octagon exterior by the 12th century.

|[[File:Ethan playing cornett, Pommersfeld Bible, Gräfl ich Schönbornsche Bibliothek, 334, fol. II 148 sharpened levels crop for cornett.jpg|thumb|200px|center|1050-1100 A.D., Germany. Ethan playing a proto-cornett, Pommersfeld Bible, Gräfl ich Schönbornsche Bibliothek, 334, fol. II 148 The musician blew through the cap. Used in medieval Europe by the 11th century A.D.

It was also made of cane or wood (and in one example, copper) with a fipple at the top, which musicians blew through to produce sound.

The flaviol was a flageolet of the Pyrenees, about 6 inches long with one fingerhole and played with one hand with the drum or tabor.

Some flaviols may have 3 fingerholes and two vents, one thumbhole and two vents. Introduced widely to Europe as soldier's instruments during 15th century by Swiss mercenaries. It also made an appearance on a coin from Syria, circa 169 A.D.

Curt Sachs saw examples of it in Greek art as early as the 10th century, and said it had been written about "as plágioi about 800 A.D." Called the recorde in England by about 1400. It is difficult to tell from art if a recorder is presented (with a thumb hole) or a "some kind of folk pipe (without the thumb hole)." Used in Russia, Belarus, western Ukraine, Serbia, Bosnia and Croatia. It was originally made from chamois horn, but in later music, the an ox-horn version filled the gap between the flageolet and the recorder. It was illustrated by Virdung in 1511, and Agricola in 1528, but may have been in decline in the 16th century. Three fingerholes and a thumb hole will play an octave. (the name bugle from Latin, for buculus or bullock), from other materials and shaped like cattle horns, and other animal horns such as goats (bukkehorn) or sheep (shofar). Carved ivory horns of this style were called oliphants. Words in English: cowhorn, bullhorn, oxhorn, steerhorn.

Horn in English was used in Old English as well; in Beowulf a leader calls his men to battle with a horn.

Among peaceful uses of these horns was for farmers to call to their cattle herds to bring them in. Could be drilled with as many as three or four fingerholes. Under reigns of Pepin the short and Charlemagne, the organ was re-introduced to Europe, starting in about 757 A.D. That was refined to make all air from three bellows enter into a common channel.

German

:Pfeife

Clarinet

Launeddas

Mantura

Sipsi

Zhaleika

Zummara

|See also alboka, in above in this table.

An aerophone in the form of a tube with "vibrating reed" inserted, either at the tip (as in launeddas) or inside the interior (as in a crumhorn or alboka).

|Renaissance instrument, ancestor of the trombone. Medieval variant was clarion or slide trumpet.

|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1522–1525, Portugal, African-heritage musicians in Portugal playing shawms and a sackbut.

|thumb|200px|center|A forerunner of the sackbut-trombone was the [[buisine with an s-curve.]]

|Shawm

bombard

:pommer

piccolo oboe or musette

oboe

|See reedpipes above

Double-reed instruments. The reed bundle is inserted through a disk (used for breath control, for uninterrupted sound, playing while the musician breathes.)

In France, musettes were small oboes until the 16th century, when they became bagpipes. The musette was a small keyless double-reed chalumeau, with a visibly conical bore and a pear-shaped bell.

|England (Middle English, from French)

:schallemelem

:shalemeyes

:calmuse

France (Old French)

:chalemel

:chalemie

:chalemeaux

:from: calamus (Latin), from κάλαμος (kálamos, Ancient Greek)

:bombard (Brittany)

:pommer

German

:Schalmei

Iberian Peninsula

:Dulzaina or dolçaina

:xirimita

:bolin-gozo (Basque)

:Gaita navarra

:gralla

:xaramita

:xirimita

:grall de pastor

:chirimia

|thumb|200px|center|Musettes (chirimia?, xirimia?) in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 350R.thumb|200px|center|Musettes (chirimia?, xirimia?) and clappers in the Cantigas de Santa Maria, Musician's Codex, folio 330.thumb|200px|center|Circa 845 A.D., France. Clappers and a horn with a very sharp tip to blow through. Possibly could be blown like a cornet or shofar (also have narrow opening), or it could be a reed horn (an oboe with a single reed or shawm/oboe with a double reed).

|Shepherd's horn In Norway [and Sweden] used by shepherds in mountain pasturage to call to livestock, frighten predators and call signals to surrounding communities. Instruments may also be built with a mouthpiece resembling a cup or funnel, in which the player uses his lips to create the sound.

|Sweden, Russia, Karelia, Belarus, Ukraine, former Yugoslavia

Pastusheskiy rog (Пастушеский рог)

:kugikly (кугиклы)

Norwegian

Lur

|thumb|200px|center|One handed pipes suitable for accompanying the tabor.

|Willow flute

Stabule

|These instruments are commonly called willow whistles because they use the bark of a willow tree (the tube created when the center is pulled from inside the bark) to make a whistle. The Russian kalyuka also makes a tube for a whistle, often out of thistle. The two instruments are played the same way, by varying the force of the air blown into the mouthpiece, with the end of the tube being covered by the finger or left open.

|Norway

:Seljefløyte

Sweden

:Sälgflöjt

Finland

:Pitkähuilu

Karelia

Latvia

:Stabule

Lithuania

:Švilpynė

Romania

:telincă

Russia

:Kalyuka

Ukraine

|thumb|200px|center|Norwegian willow whistle (Seljefløyte)

|Wooden trumpet

|After the fall of the Roman Empire, trumpets of metal were relatively rare in Europe. Europeans used horns (from goats, sheep and cattle) or carved them from wood.

The wooden trumpet was illustrated by Anglo Saxon artists in France in the Utrecht Psalter, circa 850 A.D. They drew long wooden horns with thick metal bands to hold the separate halves of the instrument together. Examples of surviving wooden instruments made in this fashion include the lur found in the Oseberg ship (two hollowed out halves held together with 5 rings or bands The yew-wood trumpet was carved in two halves lengthwise and bound together with strips of bronze, with a bronze mouthpiece.

In literature, the instrument was the beme (byme, bemastocc) in Old English. Hygelac (in the late 10th century epic poem Beowulf) calls soldiers to battle with "horn and bȳman".]]

|thumb|200px|center|Circa 1225 A.D. Horn with bands from Southern portal of the [[:fr:Abbaye Saint-Pierre de Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne|Abbey of Saint-Pierre de Beaulieu, Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne]]thumb|200px|center|1280 A.D., Spain. Horns in the Cantigas de Santa Maria. Bands around horn. Horns appear to have mouthpieces; these may be an unknown shawms (with a disk at the mouth, where a reed goes into the mouth), but shawms would have fingerholes. Disk similar to mouthpiece on [[:File:Pilaster of Angels Sounding Trumpets from the Parapet of a Pulpit MET DP169508.jpg|trumpet from 14th century.]]thumb|200px|center|Circa 1315, Macedonia. Trumpet, possibly wood.thumb|200px|center|Circa 1235 A.D., France. Horn with bulging section where two shorter sections were merged to make long horn. No bands, unlike the wooden horns. but has bosses like the buisine; possibly represents a metal horn.thumb|200px|center|Early 14th century, Italy. Angels with constructed horns in two joints (indicated by the boss in the center of the instrument).

Groups of musicians

File:Hama museum 4423pc.jpg|4th century A.D., Mariamin. Instruments of the late Roman Empire, some that would be seen in the Carolingian Empire: crotala (clappers), pipe organ with bellows to power it, double pipes, Oxyvaphi (water-filled metal bowls), kithara, cymbala (castanets).

File:David, Musée du Louvre Objets d'art MR 370.jpg|Circa 795 A.D., Carolingian Empire. Probably from Aachen. Crotala (clappers), harp and fiddle.

File:Vespasian-psalter-122 cotton ms vespasian A I.jpg|8th century A.D., England. Vespasian Psalter (Canterbury Psalter, MS Cotton Vespasian A.I, fol. 30v). King David playing the lyre with players on wooden trumpets and horns, and gleomen clapping and dancing,

File:Valcavado Beatus, fol. 199v musical band playing for evil.jpg|970 A.D. Spain. Medieval band plays for evil being, from the Valcavado Beatus, folio 199v. From left: trumpet or reedpipe (cowhorn attached to reed body), cymbals, hourglass drum, double reedpipes, cythara, wooden trumpet.

File:King David, Asaph, Heman, Ethan and Jeduthun, Winchcombe Psalter, Cambridge University Library, Ff.1.23, folio 4v.jpg|Circa 1025-1050, England, Winchcombe Psalter. King David plays medieval harp surrounded by musicians playing rotte, crwth, cornett (fingerhole horn), and crotals (clappers/cymbals on sticks).

File:Musicians with bowed lyre, psaltery, monchord, and dancers, from the Psalterium cum Canticis ('Werdener Psalter') Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ms. theol. lat. fol. 561.png|Circa 1029-1050 A.D., Germany. Musicians with bowed lyre, psaltery, monchord, and dancers, from the Psalterium cum Canticis ('Werdener Psalter') Berlin, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Ms. theol. lat. fol. 561.

File:Tiberius Psalter f30v.png|Circa 1075 A.D., England. King Alfred poses as King David. The dove brings the holy spirit; a juggler and a fiddler perform at top; at bottom a wooden trumpet and cowhorn.

File:David and his musicians, Paris, Bibliotheque nationale, f latin 11550, folio 7v.jpg|11th century A.D., France David playing lyre with his musicians playing coradoiz, harp, panpipes and rebec.

File:Roma, Bibl. Apostolica Vaticana, Pal. lat. 39, f. 44v sharpened cropped.jpg|Circa 1050 A.D., Germany. Detail from Heidelberg Psalter. Double pipes, cymbala (bells), psaltery, rotte, viola.

File:Musicians and acrobats (detail) - Google Art Project (uAFjc0uBsD FRA).jpg|Circa 1000 A.D., Kyiv, Ukraine. Musicians in the Saint Sophia Cathedral with wooden trumpets, a kobza and a psaltery played upright as a harp.

File:Musicians from the "De rerum naturis" manuscript, Monte Cassino MS Casin 132.jpg|1022-1032, Monte Casino. Musicians from the "De rerum naturis" manuscript, Monte Cassino MS Casin 132; from left cymbals, psaltery, harp or rotte, lute.

File:Jaca - Catedral, Pórtico sur 03.jpg|Last third of 11th century, Spain. Three instruments in the Jaca Cathedral Portico; far left the psalterium quadratum; center, David playing the Byzantine lira; right, a musician with a triangular harp (not a rota, because the curved right side is shaped as a harp's forpost). The psalterium quadratum is one of Jerome's instruments; see bumbulum above.

File:"Expositio in Psalmos" by Odon d'Asti, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Latin 2508, page IIv.jpg|Circa 1125, Italy. Bottom, King David plays rotte; around him are a tabor (frame drum), horn or trumpet, and crwth or fiddle

File:Musicians from the Psalter of Polirone.jpg|Circa 1100 A.D., Polirone Abbey, San Benedetto Po, Italy. King David playing a rotte (psaltery), with other musicians on fiddle, bell, bagpipe and horn, from the Musicians from the Psalter of Polirone.

File:David playing lyra, Saint Alban's Psalter.jpg|12th century A.D., England. David playing lyra (center), surrounded by (top) musicians with wooden trumpets and nakers, (center) musicians with harps, (bottom) musicians with cymbala (bell chimes), from the Saint Alban's Psalter.

File:Musicians from The Book of Divine Works - Liber divinorum operum, written by Hildegard of Bingen.jpg|1172–1174 A.D., Germany. Musicians from The Book of Divine Works by Hildegard of Bingen. From left: harp, flute or recorder, unknown, vielle (with 2 drone strings), panpipes, portative organ.

File:De cantu et musica sacra, showing musicians playing monchord, rotte lyre and cymbala bells.jpg|12th century A.D., Germany, copy printed in 1774. Martin Gerber made tracings of this image from a 12th c. manuscript. The original manuscript burned in 1768 with the abbey. Monochord, rotte and cymbala are illustrated.

File:B.18, f.1r, PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, St John's College Cambridge modified (light sharpen, levels, exposure).jpg|Early 12th century A.D. Top, spiritual music, King David surrounded by musicians. Bottom, carnal or secular music, the devil surrounded by dancers and musicians. From PSALTERIUM TRIPLEX, B.18, f.1r, St John's College Cambridge

File:Santo Domingo, Soria (21750579249).jpg|12th century A.D., Spain. Some of the 24 Elders of the Apocalypse on the Church of Saint Dominic, Soria. Instruments include rebecs and rabels (both plucked and bowed), rottes, psalteries and a organistrum.

File:St. Elizabeth’s Psalter, MS CXXXVII folio 149r, King David holding the rotte (lyre) and musicians playing chime bells, vielle, pipe organ and long horn.jpg|1201–1208 A.D. Germany, St. Elizabeth's Psalter. King David holding the rotte (lyre) and musicians playing chime bells, vielle, pipe organ and long wooden horn

File:Skylitzes Manuscript, Madrid, National Library, codex vitr. 26-2, page 173 (folio 78r), cropped for musicians, medium sharpening.jpg|12th-13th century A.D., Palermo, Sicily. Byzantine musical instruments: lute, trumpet or shawm, cymbals, rota. Skylitzes Manuscript, Madrid, National Library, codex vitr. 26-2, page 173 (folio 78r).

File:King David plays hurdy-gurdy, from Simonovskaya Psalter, State Historical Museum, Moscow, Russia.jpg|13th century, Russia. King David (center) plays organstrum or hurdy-gurdy. To David's right (our left) man playing naker (drum with snare), probable oboe, cowhorn, gusli (or rotte). To David's left, one man plays cymbals, while another man holds a psaltery. Bottom left corner (our left), a man plays a bowed lyre. Bottom right, a man with drum and curved drumstick. Simonovskaya Psalter, State Historical Museum, Moscow, Russia.

File:King David playing harp with Asaph, Aeman, Ethan and Jeduthun, Bout Psalter Book of Hours.jpg|1200-1250, France. King David playing harp with Asaph (panpipe and shofar), Aeman (cymbala), Ethan (viol) and Jeduthun (rebec), Bout Psalter Book of Hours

File:Musicians from Ms. Ludwig III 1 (83.MC.72), fol. 17v cropped.jpg|1255–1260 A.D., England. Celebrations with musicians in work titled "The Unburied Bodies of the Two Witnesses and the Rejoicing People", Ms. Ludwig III 1 (83.MC.72), fol. 17v. From left: vielle, triple pipes, tabor or drum, cymbals.

File:Meister der Weltchronik des Rudolf von Ems 001.jpg|1340 A.D., Germany. King David with scribes and musicians, detail from World Chronicle of Rudolf von Ems.

File:Codex Manesse Heinrich von Meißen (Frauenlob).jpg|1305–1340 A.D., Zurich, Switzerland. Heinrich Frauenlob, a Minnesinger (seated, top) in the Codex Manesse. From bottom left: Tabor, recorder, shawm, vielle, vielle, psaltery, bagpipe.

File:F107v b.png|1310, England. Gorleston psalter, folio 107v. Instruments from left: castagnette, harp, singing, rebec, citole, psaltery, tambourine.

File:Miriam, the golden Haggadah.jpg|Circa 1320–1330, Catalonia. Women playing instruments from the Golden Haggadah; (from left) cymbals, adufe, lute, timbrel, women dancing.

File:King David, wife Musica and musicians.jpg|14th century A.D., Italy. King David, his wife Musica and their children. From manuscript of Manlius Severinus Boethius's De Musica, Naples, Biblioteca Nazionale, Ms. VA 14, fol. 47

File:Meister der Manessischen Liederhandschrift 004.jpg|1305 and 1340 A.D., Zurich, Switzerland. Codex Manesse showing King Otto IV of Brandenburg playing chess with a woman. Below are buisines, tabor drum with two drumsticks, and bagpipes.

File:Charivari.jpg|14th century, France. In this illustration from the satirical collection of music and poetry Roman de Fauvel, the horse Fauvel is about to join Vainglory in the bridal bed and the people (dressed as mummers) form a charivari in protest.

File:Matteo di Giovanni - The Assumption of the Virgin - 1474FXD.jpg|1474 A.D., Italy. The Assumption of the Virgin by Matteo di Giovanni.

File:Angels Melozzo (Pinacoteca Vaticano) 1.jpg|1480 A.D., Italy. Remnants of a fresco from Santi Apostoli, Rome, damaged during renovation in 1711. Triangle,pipe and tabor, vielle, lute, tambourine.

File:Noia 2010-06-10-16.jpg|Circa 1434, Spain. Jesus Christ surrounded by twelve men with instruments and wearing crowns, above the main entrance of the Church of San Martiño de Noia.

File:King David and musicians from Olomouc Bible, folio 276R- lute bagpipes triangle horn viola and nakers (drums).jpg|1417 A.D., Olomouc, Moravia. David (sitting) surrounded by musicians or troubadours in a picture from the Olomouc Bible. From left: nakers, vielle, horn, triangle, lute, bagpipes

File:Hans Memling - Christ with Singing and Music-Making Angels - KMSKA 778-780.jpg|1480s, Germany. Christ with Singing and Music-Making Angels by Hans Memling.

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Percussion

String instruments

Wind instruments

Groups of musicians

References